Engineering:Dental laser

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Short description: Laser used in dentistry
LightScalpel CO2 Laser in Dental Office
A LightScalpel CO2 laser system used in dental soft tissue procedures.

Introduction to Dental Laser

Dental lasers are devices that emit focused light energy to treat both hard tissues (teeth and bone) and soft tissues (gums). They provide precise treatment with less pain, reduced bleeding, and faster healing compared with traditional methods.[1]

Laser use in dentistry began in the 1960s, but practical applications developed in the late 1980s. Early ruby lasers had limitations, while CO₂ and Nd:YAG lasers improved soft tissue treatment.[2] A major breakthrough came in the 1990s with erbium lasers (Er:YAG, Er,Cr:YSGG), which effectively cut hard tissues, expanding their use in modern dentistry.[3]

Types of Lasers Used in Dental Practice

There are various classifications of dental lasers, including those based on their wavelengths or their delivery system. Rather than their physical characteristics, a more clinically oriented classification has been suggested, classifying dental lasers into surgical and non-surgical groups based on their intended use. Surgical lasers can be further divided into two categories: soft-tissue and hard-tissue. This method of classification enables clinicians to choose a suitable laser wavelength based on procedural requirements.[4]

Surgical Lasers

(A) Soft-Tissue Lasers

Diode Laser Diode lasers are small, portable solid-state units operating at ~810–1064 nm. They can penetrate 2–3 mm into soft tissue and are effective for cutting vascular or pigmented tissues. They are also efficient in maintaining haemostasis because chromophores like melanin and haemoglobin absorb their energy.[5]
Nd:YAG Laser Nd:YAG lasers (1.064 µm) are usually pulsed and delivered via fibre-optic systems. They are mainly used for bacterial removal, subgingival curettage, and soft-tissue incision/ablation[6]
CO₂ Laser The CO2 laser is one of the oldest lasers used in soft tissue surgery, having been introduced in the 1970s. It emits 10,600nm and 9,300nm infrared light and can be used in continuous or pulsed modes. It has a high affinity for water and is thus effective in water rich tissues such as oral mucosa. The action relies on photothermal effects, where absorbed energy leads to quick heating, causing cellular rupture and tissue vaporisation. The laser offers precise cutting with shallow penetration and a small zone of thermal damage, but also good haemostasis and less inflammation.[7]

(B) Hard-Tissue Lasers

Erbium Lasers (Er:YAG and Er,Cr:YSGG)

The primary wavelengths for Erbium Lasers are 2940 nm (Er:YAG) and 2780 nm (Er,Cr:YSGG). These lasers have a high affinity for hydroxyapatite and the highest water absorption among dental lasers, making them ideal for hard-tissue procedures. Pulpal temperature rises minimally during cavity preparation, and due to high water absorption, erbium lasers can also perform soft-tissue ablation.[8]

Non-Surgical Lasers

Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT)

According to Rathod (2022), LLLT uses single red or near-infrared wavelengths (~630–980 nm) in pulsed or continuous modes.[9] Instead of cutting tissue, it produces photobiostimulation, promoting healing, reducing inflammation, relieving pain, and supporting nerve recovery without heating tissues.[10] Common examples include helium-neon and gallium-aluminium-arsenide lasers.

Principles of Laser Technology in Dentistry

Emission Modes of Dental Lasers

[11] Dental lasers deliver energy in different emission modes, which influence thermal effects and tissue damage.

In continuous-wave (CW) mode, the laser emits a constant beam as long as the foot switch is pressed. The tissue effect depends on exposure time, and prolonged use increases the risk of heat buildup and thermal damage.

In gated-pulse mode, a continuous beam is mechanically switched on and off, allowing short cooling intervals between pulses. This reduces overheating and charring compared to continuous mode.

In free-running pulsed (true pulsed) mode, the laser produces short, high-energy pulses generated internally, separated by longer resting periods. This allows precise cutting with minimal collateral thermal damage due to better tissue cooling.

Laser–Tissue Interactions (RATS)

[5] When laser energy contacts tissue, four interactions may occur:

  1. Reflection – energy is redirected without a biologic effect but may pose an eye hazard.
  2. Absorption – energy is taken up by tissue and converted to heat, producing clinical effects (cutting, coagulation, ablation). This depends on tissue composition and laser wavelength.
  3. Transmission – energy passes through tissue without effect.
  4. Scattering – photons deflect within tissue, reducing precision and potentially causing unintended thermal effects.

Absorption is the most clinically significant interaction.

Photobiologic Effects of Dental Lasers

The main biologic effects include:

  1. Photothermal effects – conversion of laser energy into heat, leading to incision/excision, ablation/vaporisation, and haemostasis/coagulation (most common clinical effect).[5]
  2. Photochemical effects – activation of chemical reactions, such as composite polymerization or antimicrobial photodynamic therapy.[5]
  3. Fluorescence – diagnostic use (e.g., caries detection).[5]
  4. Photobiomodulation – low-level laser stimulation promoting healing, pain reduction, and anti-inflammatory effects.[12]
  5. Photoacoustic effects – pulsed laser energy generates shock waves (spallation), aiding hard tissue removal.[5]

Clinical Applications of Dental Lasers

Periodontics

Lasers play an important role in periodontal and soft tissue management due to their minimally invasive nature and favourable clinical outcomes. One of the main advantages of using lasers in periodontal surgery is minimal tissue damage, with healing that is comparable to or faster than conventional scalpel surgery. Patient comfort is significantly improved, as lasers seal lymphatics and nerve endings, resulting in reduced pain, swelling, and postoperative discomfort. In addition, lasers provide excellent haemostasis, making them especially useful in medically compromised patients, including those receiving anticoagulant therapy[5].

In soft tissue periodontal procedures, lasers are commonly used for gingivectomy, mucogingival surgery, and crown lengthening. Laser gingivectomy is indicated for suprabony pockets, gingival enlargement, and fibrotic gingiva, while it is contraindicated in cases requiring osseous access or where attached gingiva is inadequate. The use of lasers offers superior visibility due to effective bleeding control, minimises scar formation, and allows simultaneous gingivoplasty for improved aesthetic outcomes. In mucogingival surgery, lasers are used for donor site sealing, tissue recontouring, and vestibuloplasty to increase the width of attached gingiva, with the added benefits of reduced bleeding and enhanced aesthetics.[5]

Restorative

Dental lasers are used in both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Laser-based devices such as DIAGNOdent and DIAGNOcam assist in caries detection, while CO₂, erbium, and ultra-short pulsed lasers are applied in caries removal and cavity preparation. Lasers are also used for composite curing, tooth bleaching, and digital workflows including CAD/CAM fabrication and laser sintering. In soft tissue procedures, lasers are employed for gingival contouring and crown lengthening, often providing improved haemostasis and patient comfort. Although dental lasers offer advantages such as precision and reduced bleeding, further clinical studies are needed to compare their long-term effectiveness with conventional methods.[13]

Surgical and implant

There are various clinical applications of dental lasers in surgical and implant procedures. For example, Shaik (2021) mentioned that dental lasers can be used as scalpels to produce precise incisions with minimal tissue damage and bleeding during procedures such as biopsies, lesion removal, flap access, and implant uncoverings.[14] To outline the incision, a low-energy pulse is used to make a shallow marking. Then, the laser is switched to a continuous mode where the desired incision is created. Moreover, the incisions created by these dental lasers often do not require sutures as lasers reduce bleeding, scarring, and post-operative pain.[14] These advantages make them exceptionally useful in pre-prosthetic surgeries, pre-implant tissue management and removal of exophytic lesions.

In contrast to traditional drills, Er:YAG lasers enablenon-contact bone cutting without vibration, allowing for precise shaping and aseptic effects, which has led to their increasing popularity in implant dentistry and bone surgery.[15] Er:YAG lasers work well on hard tissue because water and bone components strongly absorb their 2.94 µm wavelength. Er,Cr:YSGG (2.78 µm) lasers are also effective for dental hard-tissue procedures. Moreover, Er:YAG minimises thermal damage because of its high water absorption relative to other lasers, making it a promising modern technique for oral surgery and application in implant cases.[15]

On the other hand, Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) is used for temporomandibular joint disorders to reduce pain and inflammation as well as promote tissue healing [15]. LLLT demonstrates analgesic effects, which is thought to be due to altered nerve activity and increased pain threshold. Infrared lasers are particularly effective for relieving pain and muscle tension in masticatory muscles, especially in trismus.[14]

Photodynamic therapy is very suitable for treating head-and-neck tumours as current laser technology can readily illuminate these lesions.[14] Photodynamic therapy exhibits promise for widespread preneoplastic and early neoplastic tissues with high response rates, particularly in the upper digestive tract and intralaryngeal tumours, despite not being appropriate for large tumours.[14]

Endodontics

Pulp therapy and root canal treatment

Diode lasers can be used in reversible pulpitis and direct pulp capping because their biostimulatory effects help reduce inflammation and promote cellular regeneration and proliferation. In cases of irreversible pulpitis and infected root canals, diode lasers are mainly applied for endodontic decontamination. They can remove the smear layer from lateral canal walls and produce strong bactericidal effects without increasing temperature in the apical region. When combined with photodynamic therapy (PDT), diode and low-level lasers activate photosensitizer that penetrate deeply into dentinal tubules, improving disinfection and effectively eliminating resistant microorganisms such as Enterococcus faecalis.[16]

Endodontic retreatment

Lasers assist in soft tissue incision, removal of pathological tissue, and acceleration of healing. Nd:YAG laser can modify dentin by reducing dentinal tubule diameter and sealing canaliculi, especially in the cervical region, which helps reduce permeability. Er:YAG laser and Er,Cr:YSGG laser are used for mechanical root canal preparation; they act by evaporating intracellular fluid and sealing surrounding dentinal areas, contributing to more effective endodontic retreatment.[16]

Orthodontics

The use of lasers can help accelerate tooth movement and bone remodelling during orthodontic treatment. Additionally, it can help in the debonding of ceramic brackets by softening the adhesive resin. Low-level laser therapy has also been used to aid in pain management, as well as reduce enamel demineralisation from post orthodontic force.[17] In cases of palatal expansion, treatment may also benefit from laser therapy, which was shown to increase fibroblast proliferation and improve regeneration of the mid palatal suture.[17][18]

Lasers can also ensure minimal soft tissue damage during incisions, relevant in frenectomies and hypertrophic tissues.[19]

Paediatric

Hard Tissue

Caries Detection
  • Laser Fluorescence (LF – 655 nm, red light), also known as DIAGNOdent helps in detecting occlusal dentin caries in primary and permanent teeth, while quantitative Light-Induced Fluorescence (QLF – Argon laser, 488 nm) helps in detecting interproximal and occlusal caries that are not seen in radiographs.[20][21]

Preventions: Caries Prevention, Pits and Fissure Sealants & Tooth Surface Preparation

[20][21]

  • CO2 laser and Argon laser provide laser heat effects in the creation of micropenings and small cracks, which facilitate the penetration of fluoride, hence preventing carious lesions
  • Erbium laser can be used for fistulotomy, cleaning & conditioning of pits and fissures before sealant application.

Endodontics Applications: Pulpotomy, Pulpectomy, Vital Pulp Therapy, Root Canal Cleaning & Shaping

[20][21][22]

  • In pulpotomy and pulpectomy, CO₂laser shows reduced pulpal inflammation with high clinical success rates that are similar to those of conventional pulpotomy procedures.
  • Er,Cr:YSGG laser can be used in both vital pulp therapy and root canal cleaning and shaping.[20][21][22]

Soft Tissue

Traumatology & Vitality Testing

[20][22]

  • Laser Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) assesses pulp blood flow where vitality tests are unreliable in children. It also helps monitor revascularisation in young permanent teeth with open apices.
  • Laser involves sealing of dentinal tubules in fractured teeth to reduce sensitivity in children.
Preservation of pulp vitality

[20][22]

  • 808 nm diode laser applied around the root area promotes healing to support continued root development (apexogenesis) that is not relevant in adults
Analgesic effects, pain & discomfort alleviation

[20][21][22]

  • Low-level laser therapy decreases post-traumatic pain, swelling and inflammation by decreasing the concentration of chemical agents involved in pain mediation, such as histamine, Ach.
  • Hence, it enables minimal or no local anaesthesia in dental procedures and reduces children's anxiety.
Exposure of unerupted teeth for orthodontic purposes

[20][21]

  • Used during the mixed dentition period for the exposure of unerupted teeth where Diode or Nd:YAG lasers are used to remove the soft tissue for the eruption of impacted or delayed teeth.

Photobiomodulation and Photodynamic Therapy in Dentistry

Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a form of light therapy using non-ionising forms of light. The use of light sources like LASERS, LEDs and broadband light results in beneficial outcomes for dental therapy, including pain relief, immunomodulation and improving tissue healing and regeneration.[23] More specifically, PBM has been shown to promote tissue healing in oncotherapy-associated oral mucositis and autoimmune oral lesions, providing post-extraction pain relief.

PBM works by reacting with cells and activating their mitochondria, which contain chromophores that absorb the light emitted by the light sources. This results in increased ATP generation, accelerating wound healing, showing a beneficial influence to the treatment of facial nerve paralysis, hyposalivation, chronic sinusitis, fissured tongue and many other oral diseases.[23]

Additionally, PBM promotes cell migration, proliferation and differentiation, which has been documented to enhance the healing of connective tissue grafts of the palate by promoting more epithelial cells, fibroblasts and collagen deposition during the inflammatory phase of healing. Currently, there are no reported side effects of PBM therapy, further promoting its use in clinical dentistry.[24]

Similarly, photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive treatment that uses the interaction of oxygen and a specific wavelength of light (a photosensitising agent) to selectively destroy abnormal cells. In dentistry, PDT is used for the treatment of pre-malignant and malignant lesions of the head and neck regions, and can even be used to diagnose early lesions. When compared to conventional chemotherapy, PDT is newer and has the advantage of having minimal invasiveness and preservation of healthy tissue. As a result, the current reported side effects of PDT are not as severe as radiotherapy. It also has no risk of antibiotic resistance, making it useful in endodontics.[25]

PDT has been shown to have high antimicrobial properties, making it an ideal treatment option for oral candidiasis and for preventing alveolar osteitis following oral surgery. It is effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative endodontic bacteria. This property is also relevant in PDT-assisted plaque removal by eliminating pathogenic microorganisms which have been shown to prevent tooth decay. This is also known as Photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy PACT.[25]

Benefits, Limitations, and Safety Considerations

Soft tissue

Er:YAG and Nd:YAG lasers produce multiple therapeutic effects, including tissue degranulation, sterilization through antimicrobial action, gingival decontamination, clot stabilization, and photobiomodulation that promotes healing. Dental lasers are effective in the treatment of capillary haemangioma, venous lake, and lip vascular malformations, producing good clinical outcomes with satisfactory cosmetic results after six months. They also improve scar quality and overall postoperative appearance. Diode lasers at 940 nm are safe and effective for the removal of gingival hyperpigmentation and provide good clinical outcomes. Dental lasers enhance healing and regeneration by stimulating gingival fibroblast proliferation, particularly at wavelengths of 635 nm and 405 nm, and by increasing TGF-β1 signaling and Human Beta Defensin-2 (HBD-2) expression. These effects promote soft tissue regeneration and periodontal healing, resulting in faster healing and improved tissue repair. Both high-power and low-level lasers demonstrate therapeutic benefits. Dental lasers also reduce scar formation, particularly at 635 nm wavelengths, and promote improved postoperative tissue appearance.[26]

Hard tissue applications

Dental lasers enable selective ablation by differentiating between hard and soft tissues, allowing hard tissue ablation while preserving soft tissue and supporting precise and conservative treatment. The Er:YAG laser can safely remove composite restorations, making it useful for minimally invasive retreatment. The combination of laser irradiation and sodium fluoride (NaF) reduces calcium and phosphate loss, increases enamel hardness, and decreases demineralization and erosion depth. Laser use after extraction is associated with reduced pain, bleeding, and swelling, enhanced bone repair, and improved outcomes compared with conventional methods. Dental lasers eliminate pathogens without causing a significant temperature rise, thereby helping to preserve pulp vitality. Dental lasers improve bond strength between zirconia and resin cement as well as titanium surfaces. Certain lasers, such as Er:YAG, have been shown to produce effects comparable to sandblasting.[26]

Limitations

Cavity preparation may also require more time, as laser ablation in enamel can be reduced to about 20% of the rate achieved with a high-speed turbine, especially on highly fluoridated occlusal surfaces. However, in Class V cavities and primary teeth, where enamel has lower prismatic density, the cutting efficiency is closer to that of rotary instruments. There is also an increased risk of damaging sapphire or quartz tips if they accidentally contact enamel during laser emission.[16] Laser irrigation is less effective in debris removal compared with EDTA and NaOCl. Some lasers may increase surface cracks, which can lead to plaque retention risk, and bonding to restorations may be negatively affected. Laser irrigation is also less effective than conventional methods, and certain diode lasers (810–980 nm), particularly in primary teeth, carry a risk of excessive heat generation. The effects on titanium surfaces can also be influenced by moisture.[26]

Safety considerations

Risk of ocular injury is the primary hazard associated with dental laser use, as laser exposure can cause instant and permanent eye damage. Protective wavelength-specific laser eyewear is mandatory for both patients and clinical staff. Mandatory protective measures include laser safety goggles, high-volume suction to reduce laser plume, and protective barriers to prevent unintended tissue or equipment exposure. Laser plume may contain biological contaminants and therefore requires suction and filtration systems to protect respiratory health. Dental lasers also present fire and explosion risks, particularly in the presence of flammable materials such as alcohol, gauze, plastics, or oxygen-rich gases, making fire safety readiness essential in clinical settings. High-voltage laser equipment requires proper insulation and grounding, and maintenance or repair should only be performed by trained personnel. Operators must possess adequate knowledge of laser physics, laser settings, and laser–tissue interactions, as inadequate training increases the risk of burns, tissue damage, and treatment failure. Standardized safety protocols, including guidelines from ANSI and OSHA, should be followed through structured laser safety programs. Laser procedures should be restricted to designated clinical areas with warning signs, access control, and key-lock systems. Improper laser use may result in thermal damage, necrosis, or unintended tissue injury, making appropriate cooling methods and correct power settings essential.[27]

Regulation, Guidelines for dental laser

Regulatory Requirement[28]
  • Dental lasers are subject to regulatory control similar to other medical devices
  • Practitioners must:
    • Register and comply to guideline from American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Z136.3, specifics to healthcare laser safety.[29]
    • Follow health and safety regulations
  • Clinics must ensure:
    • Safe environment for laser use
    • Proper inspection and approval of premises
Training & Competency[28]
  • Facility must implement laser safety program and appoint laser safety officer (LSO)
  • Oversees laser safety
  • Monitors hazard control
  • Ensures staff are properly trained
  • Operators must demonstrate adequate training in laser use and understanding of laser safety principles.[28][29]
  • Training applied to dentist, assistant, entire dental team.[29]
  • Maintain records of training and evidence of competency
Controlled environment (nominal hazard zone)[28]
  • Laser use must occur in a controlled area with restricted access.[28]
  • Use physical barriers where necessary to protect others.[29]
  • Warning signs at entrances
  • Restricted access
  • Fire hazard precautions
  • Laser plume management
  • Protective barriers/ curtain
Equipment safety & suitability[28]
  • Laser devices must be suitable for clinical use and properly maintained
  • Ensure availability of protective eyewear and compliance with manufacturer guidelines
Monitoring & documentation [28]
  • Keep records of laser usage and any adverse/unwanted effects
  • Perform regular audit and review of outcomes
Infection control guidelines[28]
  • Treat lasers as standard dental instruments
  • Follow standard precautions (PPE):
    • Gloves, masks, eyewear, gowns
  • Laser-specific requirements:
    • Heat sterilization of reusable fibers and tips
    • Do NOT rely only on surface disinfection
    • Proper disposal of single-use components (e.g., tips, fiber fragments)
    • Use barrier protection on equipment
    • Disinfect surfaces and laser unit after use
Engineering (built-in safety features)[28] Laser devices should include:
  • Access control
    • Key/password protection
    • Locked panels
  • Prevention of accidental activation
    • Covered foot switch
    • Delayed response system
  • Emergency systems
    • Emergency stop button
    • Remote interlock (e.g., door system)
  • Operational safety
    • Standby/emission modes
    • Automatic return to standby
  • Monitoring systems
    • Display panel for settings
    • Error detection and shutdown
  • Warning systems[28][29]
    • Audible signals
    • Visual indicators (lights)

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Lasers in Dentistry | FDI". https://fdiworlddental.org/lasers-dentistry. 
  2. ↑ K, Dr Lochana (2021-01-02). "Lasers in Dentistry" (in en). https://www.icliniq.com/articles/dental-oral-health/lasers-in-dentistry. 
  3. ↑ Parker, S. (January 2007). "Introduction, history of lasers and laser light production" (in en). British Dental Journal 202 (1): 21–31. doi:10.1038/bdj.2006.113. ISSN 1476-5373. PMID 17220848. https://www.nature.com/articles/bdj.2006.113. 
  4. ↑ Maheshwari, Shreya; Jaan, Asima; Vyaasini, C.V. Sruthi; Yousuf, Aasiya; Arora, Gautam; Chowdhury, Chirantan (2020-08-14). "Laser and its Implications in Dentistry: A Review Article". Journal of Current Medical Research and Opinion 3 (8). doi:10.15520/jcmro.v3i08.323. ISSN 2589-8779. http://cmro.in/index.php/jcmro/article/view/323. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 (in en) Principles and Practice of Laser Dentistry. Elsevier. 2016. doi:10.1016/c2013-0-14180-3. ISBN 978-0-323-29762-2. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/C20130141803. 
  6. ↑ Srivastava A, Shrivastava R, Srivastava R, Goel D, Khatri RK, Mathur S. Lasers in dentistry. Int J Med Sci Educ. 2019;6(4):99-104.
  7. ↑ Asnaashari, Mohammad; Behnam Roudsari, Mohammadreza; Shirmardi, Maryam Sadat (2023-10-15). "Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser in Minor Oral Surgery: A Systematic Review" (in en). Journal of Lasers in Medical Sciences 14. doi:10.34172/jlms.2023.44. ISSN 2008-9783. PMID 38028885. PMC 10658117. https://journals.sbmu.ac.ir/jlms/article/view/41901. 
  8. ↑ Karic, Vesna; Melman, Geoffrey; Mulder, Riaan (May 2016). "Introduction to Dental Lasers" (in en). South African Dental Journal 71 (4): 178. ISSN 0011-8516. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0011-85162016000400008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en. 
  9. ↑ Rathod, Aishwarya; Jaiswal, Priyanka; Bajaj, Pavan; Kale, Bhairavi; Masurkar, Deepika (2022-09-05). "Implementation of Low-Level Laser Therapy in Dentistry: A Review" (in en). Cureus 14 (9). doi:10.7759/cureus.28799. ISSN 2168-8184. PMID 36225465. 
  10. ↑ Luke, Alexander Maninagat; Mathew, Simy; Altawash, Maram Majed; Madan, Bayan Mohammed (2019-10-01). "Lasers: A Review With Their Applications in Oral Medicine" (in en). Journal of Lasers in Medical Sciences 10 (4): 324–329. doi:10.15171/jlms.2019.52. ISSN 2008-9783. PMID 31875126. PMC 6885906. http://journals.sbmu.ac.ir/jlms/article/view/23044. 
  11. ↑ Lakshmi DR, Dakshita S, Brindha S, Sudhakar U. Advancements in laser technology for periodontal therapy: a comprehensive review. Int J Creat Res Thoughts. 2023;11(9). Accessed April 1, 2026. https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2309477.pdf
  12. ↑ Pandarathodiyil AK, Anil S. Lasers and their Applications in the Dental Practice. Int J Dent Oral Sci. 2020;7(11):936-943.
  13. ↑ Najeeb, Shariq; Khurshid, Zohaib; Zafar, Muhammad Sohail; Ajlal, Syed (2016). "Applications of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Lasers) for Restorative Dentistry" (in en). Medical Principles and Practice 25 (3): 201–211. doi:10.1159/000443144. ISSN 1011-7571. PMID 26642047. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Shaik, Khadar Vali; Alanazi, Mohammed Ibrahim Nazal; Albilasi, Rakan Menwer; Albalawi, Bader Falah Arqoub; Alruwaili, Faris Alturqi (June 2021). "Lasers in Maxillofacial Surgery – Review of Literature" (in en). Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences 13 (Suppl 1): S19–S22. doi:10.4103/jpbs.JPBS_710_20. ISSN 0976-4879. PMID 34447036. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Nagy A. Soft and Hard Dental Tissues Laser Er:YAG Laser: From Fundamentals to Clinical Applications. Review Article. EC Dental Science. 2017;11(4):149-167.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Agop-Forna D, Sălceanu M, Topoliceanu C, Creţu C, Vasincu D, Forna N. Dental lasers in Restorative Dentistry: A Review. Rom J Oral Rehabil. 2021;13(2):7-17.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Khan, Rehan; Baruah, Nabanita; Kashyap, Arpita; Bhattacharjee, Rajashree (2025-07-21). "Lasers in orthodontics-Current update" (in en). IP Indian Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Research 8 (2): 83–89. doi:10.18231/j.ijodr.2022.016. ISSN 2581-9356. https://ijodr.com/archive/volume/8/issue/2/article/4910. 
  18. ↑ Nalcaci R, Cokakoglu S. Lasers in orthodontics. Eur J Dent 2013;7:119-25
  19. ↑ Sharath Kumar Shetty et al. Lasers in Orthodontics. Sch J Dent Sci, 2021 Aug 8(7): 224-229
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Nazemisalman, Bahareh; Farsadeghi, Mahya; Sokhansanj, Mehdi (2015-06-28). "Types of Lasers and Their Applications in Pediatric Dentistry" (in en). Journal of Lasers in Medical Sciences 6 (3): 96–101. doi:10.15171/jlms.2015.01. ISSN 2008-9783. PMID 26464775. PMC 4599202. http://journals.sbmu.ac.ir/jlms/article/view/8535. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Roaa AlDomyati, Raghad Bajaber, Faisal Alrumi, et al. The Use of Lasers in Pediatric Dentistry: Applications, Benefits, and Limitations. Journal of Healthcare Sciences. 2023;03(10):427-435. doi:https://doi.org/10.52533/johs.2023.31009
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Sinha1, Ankita; Mohanty2, Susant; Acharya3, Sonu (2020-10-29). "Lasers in Pediatric Dentistry: A Review Article" (in en). Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 14 (4): 8990–8997. doi:10.37506/ijfmt.v14i4.13139. ISSN 0973-9130. https://medicopublication.com/index.php/ijfmt/article/view/13139. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Benjamin, S., R. Arany, P., Brewster, K., Cianciola, J., Govindool, S. R., Romanos, G., & Vitruk, P. (2023). Ada Technical Report no. 189 all interested parties review: November 2023. American Dental Association . https://www.ada.org/-/media/project/ada-organization/ada/ada-org/files/resources/practice/dental-standards/aip-review/189%20aip%2011%2023.pdf https://www.ada.org/-/media/project/ada-organization/ada/ada-org/files/resources/practice/dental-standards/aip-review/189_aip_11_23.pdf
  24. ↑ Soni S, Thakar S. A review of photobiomodulation and its application in dentistry. Indian J Dent Sci 2022;14:209-12
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Stájer, Anette; Kajári, Szilvia; Gajdács, Márió; Musah-Eroje, Aima; Baráth, Zoltán (2020-05-07). "Utility of Photodynamic Therapy in Dentistry: Current Concepts" (in en). Dentistry Journal 8 (2): 43. doi:10.3390/dj8020043. ISSN 2304-6767. PMID 32392793. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Liaqat, Saad; Qayyum, Haleema; Rafaqat, Zainab; Qadir, Abdul; Fayyaz, Sarmad; Khan, Aiman; Jabeen, Humaira; Muhammad, Nawshad et al. (December 2022). "Laser as an innovative tool, its implications and advances in dentistry: A systematic review" (in en). Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology 12. doi:10.1016/j.jpap.2022.100148. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666469022000410. 
  27. ↑ Singh G, Gambhir RS, Kapoor D, Singh S, Kaur A. Safety concerns regarding the use of dental lasers. International Journal of Laser Dentistry. 2017;2(2):35-40.
  28. ↑ 28.00 28.01 28.02 28.03 28.04 28.05 28.06 28.07 28.08 28.09 Barenghi, Livia; Barenghi, Alberto; Scribante, Andrea; Pellegrini, Matteo; Spadari, Francesco (2025-02-05). "Laser-assisted dentistry, safety, and cross-infection control: A narrative review". Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 15 (3): 1-21. doi:10.7324/JAPS.2025.210316. ISSN 2231-3354. https://japsonline.com/abstract.php?article_id=4459&sts=2. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Pavithra Prabakaran. Laser Safety in Dentistry. International Journal on Oral Health. Published online October 12, 2023:27-28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374629265_Laser_Safety_in_Dentistry



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