Engineering:Missing middle housing

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Housing starts in the United States, 1959–2021
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  2-4 unit residential

Missing middle housing refers to a lack of medium-density housing in the North American context. It is often characterized by a range of multi-family or clustered housing types that are compatible in scale with single-family or transitional neighborhoods. It is usually used to describe a phenomenon in Canada and the United States , and those countries which have sought to replicate their style of urban planning, which lacks this type of medium-density housing due to car dependant suburban sprawl and zoning regulations.

Missing middle housing is intended to meet the demand for walkable neighborhoods, respond to changing demographics, and provide housing at different price points.[1] The term "missing middle" is meant to describe housing types that were common in the pre-WWII United States such as duplexes, rowhouses, and courtyard apartments but are now less common and, therefore, "missing". Rather than focusing on the number of units in a structure, missing middle housing emphasizes building at a human scale and heights that are appropriate for single-family neighborhoods or transitional neighborhoods.[2] After the introduction of the term in 2010, the concept has been applied in the United States, Canada , and Australia .

Historic four-plex in Portland, Oregon

The term "missing middle housing" was introduced by architect Daniel Parolek in 2010.[3][1][4][5] Many forms of what is now described as "missing middle" housing were built before the 1940s including two-flats in Chicago, rowhouses in Brooklyn, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia, two-family homes or "triple-decker" homes in Boston, Worcester, and bungalow courts in California.[6] Post-WWII, housing in the United States trended significantly toward single-family with zoning making it difficult to build walkable medium density housing in many areas and, therefore, reducing the supply of the now "missing" middle.[7][8]

History

Police escorting a "scab-driven streetcar during the San Francisco Streetcar Strike of 1907. A number of streetcar strikes broke out in the United States during the early 20th century.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, Canadian and American cities with few exceptions, most notably New York and Chicago which already had many tall buildings, were not dramatically different in form from their European counterparts. They had a relatively small physical footprint compared to their population size, and buildings were largely 3-7 stories tall surrounded by a relatively modest ring of streetcar suburbs.[9] Most city dwellers who were in the lower to middle-income brackets lived in dense urban environments within a practical distance of their workplace.

Looking up 1st Ave in Seattle from Pioneer Square, 1900

The less well-off typically lived on either the upper floors of multi-unit residential buildings, as most did not have elevators, or in tenements. Merchants frequently lived in a residential unit above their store. Those who were better-off may have lived in a rowhouse or terrace, and starting toward the end of the 19th century, perhaps in a streetcar suburb still relatively close to the city centre.[10] Overall, the typical arrangement of urban spaces was one where communities were serviced by small scale owner-operated shops and transport to non-walkable destinations was done by bicycle, bus, streetcar, or train. Traditionally those in the highest income brackets had typically lived in large houses outside of, but often near to, the city. They travelled to the city originally by horse carriage and later by automobile.[11] For most people, the need to live close to their job significantly limited spatial social stratification beyond economic class, however, this situation collapsed in the wake of explosive expansion of post-war suburban sprawl which enabled white flight.[12]

The early to mid-twentieth century implementation of the suburb was thoroughly informed by this social context, and it was not uncommon for policymakers to inappropriately conflate small residential unit size, insanity, and crime with the traditional urban form; while simultaneously idealising “rural” and upper class style estate living as its cure-all. The new car suburb was an affordable imitation of upper-class housing which became possible at such a vast scale when, after the war, factories could be turned over from producing military vehicles to consumer cars, helping to reduce the nominal price of a private automobile.[13]

A busy Los Angeles street in the 1890s showing the roads as public space not dominated by one mode of transport.

Originally in the US, the legal rule was that "all persons have an equal right in the highway, and that in exercising the right each shall take due care not to injure other users of the way".[14] Pro-automobile interests advocated for the removal of non-drivers from the road, and particularly targeted pedestrians with the invention and criminalization of “jaywalking.”[15][16][17] Importantly Federal, State, and Provincial governments undertook massive highway building programmes and also directly subsidized the purchasing of new suburban homes (Levittown being the prototype).[18][19][20] These government policies helped to make cars a practical choice and fostered the wholesale adoption of the car by the middle classes by the 1960s and helped to create the conditions for a decline in the quality, availability, and financial viability of public transportation.[21] Increasingly the prestige and influence of New York and Chicago, with their high-land prices and abundant skyscrapers, fostered a sense among many Canadian and Americans that “real cities” have tall buildings, and a "downtown" dominated by them, meanwhile European cities remained relatively medium-rise, dense, and pluricentric.[22]

Aerial view of Levittown, Pennsylvania c. 1959

With this in mind, it is possible to understand the factors considered most important by policy makers in the mid-twentieth century context and how they pursued policies which would no longer allow for the previously dominant medium-density building types. The resulting policies radically reformed cities into ones that typically have a unicentric urban core which is dominated by tall buildings built to be reliant on office uses with the area often referred to as the Central business district (CBD). This new "urban core" of stacked office uses is typically surrounded by swathes of sub-urban and peri-urban landscapes dominated by single-family homes with gardens serviced by the private automobile, car-centric retail destinations, and vast highway networks.[23]

Impacts

An example of historic row houses in Baltimore with Characteristics of Medium-Density Housing

The loss of flexible middle-density development serviced by affordable and widely used public transportation resulted in; high commute times for commuters which have remained stubbornly unaffected by further investment in new road capacity due to the nature of induced demand, a practical limit on the space required to move large volumes of people in relatively large vehicles, and greatly increased costs for both the vehicle owner and government due to the inherent inefficiency compared to previous modes of transport.[24][25][26] Other problems include difficulty for low-income residents to find affordable accommodation within a reasonably affordable and practical commute of their place of employment. Difficulty of car-centric cities to be climate friendly due to impacts relating to inefficient use of resources, volume of paved area contributing to flood-risk, and potential loss of natural habitats to human development. Without middle density development to support them, cities have lost the majority of retailers not operating with substantial economies of scale such as “mom and pop shops” to big-box stores, and have also seen the loss of third places. Third places being those places where people spend time which is neither their private residence nor their place of work. These places are important for recreation, meeting neighbours, for adults to make friends, and for community organization. The loss of these third places and small businesses is due to the need of both to rely on proximity to a large number of people for whom visiting them is easy, can be spontaneous, and would not require a special trip. Some have characterised the replacement of these “third places,” where historically people of all backgrounds in the neighbourhood gathered organically, by relatively fewer spaces where people must choose to drive as a source of social filtering and potential source of social alienation. Some have suggested the loss of genuine “third spaces” as a contributing factor to a perceived reduction in a sense of belonging, inter-group social cohesion, and a rise in generalised loneliness.[27] According to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization has contributed to contemporary environmental racism.[28]

Causes

The polarization of Canadian and American cities into ones dominated by low and high density development with little in-between, has been due to implementing strict single-use land-use zoning laws at a municipal level which prioritises these use types while making new medium-density illegal. This, combined with shifts in transportation planning at all levels, had helped to create a development paradigm which takes the private motor vehicle as its default mode of transportation, and only after that, considering other modes like walking, cycling, buses, streetcars, and subways. Public transport, where it still exists, has typically also built within this paradigm of car dependency. For example, GO Transit rail services in the Greater Toronto Area is one of the few commuter-rail services in either Canada or the United States, but is designed for commuters to drive to parking lots with a train platform where the rail service will take passengers to the CBD in the morning and return them to the parking lot in the afternoon, service has been unidirectional and only operated during rush hour.[29]

Possible Solutions

Bungalow Court development where several small homes surround a central garden

Missing middle housing offers a greater choice in housing types that still blend into existing single-family neighborhoods, create more affordable housing options, and help reach sustainability goals.[30][31][32][33] Missing middle housing units are usually smaller units than single-family homes because they share a lot with other homes, which results in lower per-unit land costs and, therefore, lower housing costs.[34] Missing middle housing types are also one of the cheapest forms of housing to produce because they are typically low-rise, low parking and wood-frame construction, which avoids expensive concrete podiums.[35][36][37] Because the construction and building materials are comparatively less complicated than larger mid-and high-rise structures, a larger pool of small-scale and local home builders can participate in the creation of this form of housing.[36][37] To support municipal budgets, the denser and more efficient use of land and infrastructure may be financially productive for municipalities with more people paying taxes per acre for less infrastructure than large lot single-family homes.[8][38][39]

Increasing missing middle housing options may allow families of different sizes, types, and incomes to access quality housing. Missing middle housing tends to become naturally affordable housing as it ages, and provides a level of density that supports the shops, restaurants, and transit that are associated with walkable neighborhoods.[40][41][42] Walkable neighborhoods may then support sustainability, health, and affordability goals by reducing reliance on personal vehicles.[43] This would promote active transportation, reduce sprawl, reduce pollution, and reduce transportation costs by lessening the need for personal vehicles.[35][44][45][46] Missing middle housing options may allow seniors to downsize without leaving their neighborhood. For example, accessory dwelling units can enable multi-generation households to have privacy while all living on the same property.[47][48][49][50] Missing middle housing may enable a wider range of families to achieve homeownership by offering a wider range of housing options and prices.[51] Additionally, missing middle housing types such as accessory dwelling units can support mortgages through the rents of those secondary units.[52] Overall, missing middle housing options can create housing at a wide range of prices for a range of family types.[53][54][55][56][30]

Some property rights advocates believe that widely permitting missing middle housing expands property rights by allowing property owners more choice in how to use their property.[57][58][59] Some equity advocates feel that permitting more diverse housing choices, such as missing middle housing, may reduce historic and modern inequities that keep less affluent people out of certain amenity-rich neighborhoods.[60][8][61][62][63][64][65][66][67]

Transit-oriented development (TOD)

Aerial view of Rosslyn-Ballston corridor in Arlington, Virginia. High density, mixed use development is concentrated within ¼–½ mile from the Rosslyn, Court House and Clarendon Washington Metro stations (shown in red), with limited density outside that area.

Increasingly from the 1990s onwards, transit-oriented development (TOD) has been put forward by many urban planners as a way to create more medium-density development. The idea is that creating communities of mixed-use development around public transport nodes will help to recreate demand for public transport and help to re-urbanize Canadian and American municipalities. TOD developments in Canada and the United States are typically near a public transport node, made of large plots with between one and a few buildings on them owned by one to a few owners and, typically, tall buildings and or buildings of intermediate size with a mixture of uses permitted within them predominating. Uses often include shops at the ground floor with residential and office uses interspersed throughout the upper floors.

Some critics of the way the TOD concept has been implemented in Canada and the United States point out that the large TODs fail to engage in placemaking and the result is relatively large highly controlled characterless places not unlike the suburbs and strip malls they are meant to replace.[68] These critics say that the problem is with trying to zone for what planners think a city looks like; rather than creating the transport and legal conditions to allow it to take shape organically.[69]

Nested Intensity Zoning

However, it is worth noting that urban planning in Japan uses a zoning system and has not lost middle density housing. Instead of single-use zoning, zones are defined by the "most intense" use permitted. Uses of lesser intensity are permitted in zones where higher intensity uses are permitted but higher intensity uses are not allowed in lower intensity zones.[70] This results in nested zoning, where the higher intensity zones are inclusive of related lower intensity ones. Zoning districts in Japan are classified into twelve use zones.[71] Each zone determines a building's shape and permitted uses. A building's shape is controlled by zonal restrictions on allowable building coverage ratios, floor area ratios, height (in absolute terms and in relation with adjacent buildings and roads), and minimum residential unit size. These controls are intended to allow adequate light and ventilation between buildings and on roads, and to ensure a decent quality of housing. In this system, rather than trying to plan for how and where to create dedicated districts of medium density housing, planners are left to focus on creating the conditions necessary to encourage land owners to intensify the use of their plots, and ensuring new areas of medium density that arise have the amenities they need to be successful.

Examples of medium density single detached houses in Japan. Note the absence of cars, car facilities, or private gardens and the use of substantial balconies, strategic window placement, and considerable house size.

When discussing medium density housing, it is important to explore the differences between the approach this type of zoning uses with respect to single-detached housing compared to that traditionally used in the United States and Canada. In the United States and Canada single-detached homes typically require large setbacks for off-street car parking and yards/gardens; while single detached homes in Japan are in many cases similarly large single detached houses but on small plots taking-up virtually the entirety of the plot fronting directly on to the street with no requirement for off street car parking; instead assuming a reliance on public transport rather than cars to meet daily needs. Roads in these areas are slow and drivers are aware they must legally share responsibility for mutual safety with all the other types of road users equally. thumb|right|A girl running on a street in Osaka; it is common to see children walking and playing with their friends in the street or taking the metro by themselves unsupervised in Japan.[72]This type of single detached house can achieve medium housing density while fostering a sense of community, municipal fiscal viability, and good residential amenity. This is achieved while maintaining privacy and access to sunlight by regulating the direction of windows, the use of very small setbacks, much higher maximum building coverage ratios, higher Floor area ratios, and other considerations discussed in the previous paragraph. It is also worth noting that Japanese houses offer, on average, larger living spaces than that of many wealthy European countries which have not lost their medium density housing.[73][74] This approach to not require car parking provision or private yards/gardens in areas with high degrees of good connectivity is seen as desirable because; access to common outdoor green space is seen as sufficient for these needs or, at the very least, an acceptable tradeoff for the convenience of improved connectivity; the provision of sprawling lower value land-uses like private car parking and residential garden spaces in such locations are viewed as a poor return on investment by developers eager to maximize living space and plot utilization; urban planners who are eager to avoid the imprudent use of limited public funds with respect to the large nominal and operational costs of public transportation, water, power, roads, etc. which usually increase over distances, while access costs for users do not; and urban planners seeking to avoid wasteful and shortsighted opportunity costs.

This approach to zoning gives the landowner more flexibility in using the land while still precluding harmful or inappropriate development and maintaining the benefit of remaining predictable and easy to understand. The result is that when demand changes, like with new public transport investment, land-owners are able to, on an individual basis, redevelop their land to meet demand in a manner that can be reactive to local demand and distributes risk for the local community; for example the failure of a medium-sized building to find tenants may have a relatively small impact, whereas a large one failing to do so may hamper development of other types in the same community. This type of zoning may also help to foster a more organic and local character to communities, especially over time.

Form-based code (FBC)

Examples of missing middle housing types

A form-based code (FBC) is a means of regulating land development to achieve a specific urban form. Form-Based Codes foster predictable built results and a high-quality public realm by using physical form (rather than separation of uses) as the organizing principle, with less focus on land use, through municipal regulations. An FBC is a regulation, not a mere guideline, adopted into city, town, or county law and offers an alternative to conventional zoning regulation.[75]

Missing-middle housing comes in a variety of building types and densities but may be characterized by location in a walkable context, lower perceived density, small building footprints, smaller homes, reasonably low amounts of parking, simple construction, and focus on community.[76][77][78][79] Forms of missing middle housing may include side-by-side duplexes, stacked duplexes, bungalow courts, accessory dwelling units (carriage houses, basement apartments, etc.), fourplexes, multiplexes, townhomes, courtyard apartments, and live/work units.[80][81] These building types typically have a residential unit density in the range of 16 to 30 units per acre but are often perceived as being less dense because they are smaller in scale.[82] Because of its scale, missing middle housing may mix into single-family neighborhoods, act as an end-grain of a single-family housing block, act as a transition between higher density housing and single-family housing, or act as a transition from a mixed-use area to a single-family area.[83][84] The resulting density may support broader community desires, including walkable retail, amenities, public transportation, and increased "feet on the street".[85]

Barriers

New Multifamily Units Constructed
For Rent
  •   Under 1,000 ft2
  •   1,000 - 1,199 ft2
  •   1,200 - 1,399 ft2
  •   1,400 - 1,799 ft2
  •   1,800+ ft2
For Sale
  •   Under 1,000 ft2
  •   1,000 - 1,199 ft2
  •   1,200 - 1,399 ft2
  •   1,400 - 1,799 ft2
  •   1,800+ ft2

Many local governments do not allow the zoning necessary to build MMH. Owning a studio, 1 bedroom, or 2 bedroom condominium that is 600–1,000 ft2 in a multi-unit complex with a reasonable HOA monthly fee and a 1.5 detached garage isn't allowed in many areas because of zoning ordinances. Many 5-over-1 complexes were built starting in the 2010s but primarily for leasing and not owning.[86]

Recent Developments

The resurgence of missing middle housing is due to many factors including resurgent market demand for this type of housing, demand for housing in amenity-rich walkable neighborhoods, the necessity of housing affordability, environmental efforts to support walkability, transit-oriented developments, and changing demographic trends.[87][88] The American Association for Retired Persons (AARP) released a report showing that more and more, Americans want to "age in place" and need easy access to services and amenities available in walkable, urban, transit-oriented communities.[89] Millennials have been shown to drive less and seek housing choices in walkable neighborhoods close to transit.[90] The number of automobile miles traveled increased each year between 1946 and 2004; today Americans drive less than 2004, and no more per person than in 1996. The decline in driving is most striking among young people aged 16 to 34, who drove 23% fewer miles on average in 2009 than their age group did in 2001.[91] Furthermore, research suggests that millennials prefer amenity-rich, transit rich, and walkable neighborhoods.[92][93] Small Housing B.C. has stated that "The structure of the traditional North American suburb has failed to live up to the expectations of many who settled in suburban neighborhoods, and new ways are being sought to re-engineer suburban living and re-build those settlement patterns."[94]

State-level examples

Duplex like those permitted by state legislation in Oregon
Collage of duplexes

Several American states have adopted or proposed legislation aimed at increasing the stock of missing middle housing. Most notably, Oregon adopted House Bill 2001 in 2019.[95][96] The bill requires Oregon's medium-sized cities to allow duplexes on each lot or parcel zoned for residential use that allows for the development of single-family homes.[95] Additionally, Oregon's large cities (with a population over 25,000) and cities in the Portland Metro region, must allow duplexes, triplexes, quadplexes, cottage clusters, and townhouses in residential areas.[95] The Bill set aside funds for planning assistance to local governments to help draft local codes and allows municipalities to set reasonable design and infrastructure standards.[95] In Massachusetts, H.5250 was adopted to require municipalities near the MTBA to reasonably allow duplex or multi-family housing near transit stations.[97][98] The Bill also created financial incentives for communities to zone for "smart growth" and made it easier for municipalities to adopt zoning ordinances or zoning amendments.[99][100][101] In 2019, Washington State adopted E2SHB 1923 encouraging all cities under the Growth Management Act (GMA) to increase residential capacity by supporting many forms of missing middle housing.[102][103] The State of Washington provided grant funds to help support code changes, housing action plans, and sub-area plans to support missing middle housing types.[104][103][105] In 2022 Maine adopted bills LD2003 and LD201 that implement several affordable housing strategies including allowing accessory dwelling units and duplexes on residential lots statewide and permitting fourplexes in certain "growth areas".[106][107][108]

The states of Vermont,[109][110] New Hampshire,[111][112] and California[113][114] have adopted a number of bills that promote accessory dwelling units and reduce regulatory barriers to accessory dwelling unit construction. State-level action has also occurred in Australia where, citing an effort to promote more 'missing middle' development, New South Wales launched the Low Rise Housing Diversity Code and Design Guides for Low Rise Housing Diversity.[115][116] The State of Connecticut House and Senate approved legislation to reduce some zoning restrictions on missing middle housing types such as accessory dwelling units.[117][118][119][120][121]

Other states have considered but not adopted similar legislation to support missing middle housing types. The State of Illinois considered HB4869 which would have required municipalities to permit (and reasonably regulate) accessory dwelling units.[122] Virginia considered HB 152 which would have required municipalities to allow (and reasonably regulate) missing middle housing types (duplexes, cottages, etc.) on all lots currently zoned for single-family housing.[123] The State of Maryland considered HB1406 "Planning for Modest Homes Act of 2020" which would have required census tracts that are affluent, transit-adjacent, and/or near a large number of jobs, to allow missing middle housing types.[124][125] Nebraska considered LB794 would mandate every city with more than 5,000 people to allow missing middle housing in areas previously zoned exclusively for single-family detached residential.[126][127] Montana considered HB 134 which would have allowed duplex, triplex, and fourplex housing in certain municipalities.[128][129] North Carolina considered House Bill 401 and Senate Bill 349, which would have allowed middle housing in any neighborhood zoned for detached, single-family homes.

Municipal examples

Modern four-plex contains four units

Many municipalities are updating their land-use and zoning regulations to better support missing middle housing.[130][131] Changes to land use regulations to support missing middle housing may also include changes such as form-based-codes, transit-oriented development, and other updates.[132]

In the United States, Portland, Oregon, has a number of historic missing middle housing types located throughout the city, most of which are duplexes, that were built before the 1920s before the city's first zoning plan was approved. Zoning for single-family homes was expanded in the 1950s and the building of duplexes or triplexes largely became illegal in Portland. In the 2010s Portland began updating its zoning regulations to permit Missing Middle Housing types.[133][134][135] Missing Middle zoning updates have spread through the Pacific Northwest and now include Seattle,[136][137][138] Walla Walla,[139] Lake Stevens,[140][141] Orting,[142][140] Wenatchee,[140][143] Eugene,[144][145] Olympia,[146][147] Spokane,[148][149] and Bellingham,[150] Tacoma,[151][152] and Tigard[153] among others.[154][155]

Zoning updates to support missing middle housing are not just found in the Pacific Northwest. Notably, In Minnesota, the Minneapolis 2040 plan called for up-zoning the city to allow more missing middle housing types throughout the city.[156][157][158][159][160][161] The new zoning in Minneapolis does not prohibit the construction of single-family homes, but no neighborhoods in the city are zoned exclusively for single-family zoning.[159] The city also eliminated mandatory parking minimums from its zoning regulations allowing builders and business owners to choose the amount of parking they provide based on the market and their unique needs.[162][163][164]

Oregon Fourplex

In California, Sacramento voted to permit up to four housing units on all residential lots and reduce parking requirements in order to help the city alleviate its housing crisis and to achieve equity goals.[165] The City of Berkeley, California has voted unanimously to zone for several missing middle housing types city-wide by 2022 citing equity and housing affordability as goals.[166][167][168]

Bryan, Texas implemented a pattern-zoning policy in which the City provides several pre-designed and pre-approved plans for missing middle housing types (with significantly reduced permitting procedures) in the "midtown" portion of the city.[169][170] The goal of the program is to reduce housing costs caused by design fees and lengthy permitting procedures, reduce burdens on city staff, achieve public input and support for housing designs in advance, and ensure quality housing designs.[170][171] Norfolk, VA also has a missing middle pattern book with free designs for missing middle housing types including duplexes and quadplexes.[172][173][174]

Many local governments across the United States have chosen to zone for missing middle housing types in significant portions of their zoning districts including Grand Rapids Michigan,[175][176] Durham, North Carolina,[177][178] Kirkland Washington's cottage housing zoning,[179] Montgomery County, Maryland's numerous housing studies,[180] Bloomington, Indiana,[181][182] and Dekalb County, Georgia.[183][184][185] Indianapolis, Indiana chose to permit missing middle housing types (in addition to higher density housing types) along bus rapid transit corridors.[186][187] Indianapolis also included missing middle housing types in its residential infill guidelines.[188] Other cities are making long-term plans to increase the supply of missing middle housing. Charlotte, NC added language in their comprehensive plan to allow duplexes and triplexes across the city.[189][190] Citing missing middle housing as a component of a larger affordable housing strategy, Raleigh, NC voted to permit several missing middle housing types in most residential zones.[191][192][193][194]

Montréal, Québec's unique[citation needed] missing middle housing

While some communities have not adopted regulations to widely permit the full range of missing middle housing types, they have made changes to permit accessory dwelling units. Diverse examples include large cities such as Los Angeles, CA,[195] the City of Chicago, IL,[196] and smaller cities such as Lexington, KY,[197] and Santa Cruz, CA.[198]

Outside of the United States, cities in both Australia and Canada have adopted missing middle housing reforms. Notable examples in Canada include Edmonton, Alberta's missing middle zoning reforms,[199] and Vancouver British Columbia's secondary unit zoning.[200][201][202] Montréal, Québec is notable for its distinct architecture and urban planning that has historically included significant amounts of missing middle housing.[203][204] Due to its unique history, many neighborhoods in Montreal include low-rise attached duplexes, triplexes, and apartments often with exterior stair-entry, minimal front setbacks, and with small backyards. This creates a significant level of density without high-rises.[203][204][205] In Australia , The 30-Year Plan for Greater Adelaide includes a focus on missing middle housing[206][207] as does Moreland's Medium Density Housing Review.[208]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Parolek, Daniel (2020). Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today's Housing Crisis. Washington DC: Island Press. pp. 7–8. 
  2. ↑ Parolek, Daniel (2020). Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today's Housing Crisis. Washington DC: Island Press. pp. 15. 
  3. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today's Housing Crisis (Webcast)" (in en-US). 11 August 2020. https://www.strongtowns.org/eventspage/2020/8/11/missing-middle-housing-parolek. 
  4. ↑ "'Missing Middle Housing' Website to Fill the Gap Between Supply and Demand" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/node/75901. 
  5. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing" (in en-US). https://opticosdesign.com/missing-middle-housing/. 
  6. ↑ "Will U.S. Cities Design Their Way Out of the Affordable Housing Crisis?" (in en). https://nextcity.org/features/view/cities-affordable-housing-design-solution-missing-middle. 
  7. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing" (in en). 18 May 2016. https://www.nar.realtor/articles/missing-middle-housing. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Wegmann, Jake (2020-01-02). "Death to Single-Family Zoning…and New Life to the Missing Middle". Journal of the American Planning Association 86 (1): 113–119. doi:10.1080/01944363.2019.1651217. ISSN 0194-4363. 
  9. ↑ Harris, Richard (1990-07-09). "Self-Building and the Social Geography of Toronto, 1901-1913: A Challenge for Urban Theory" (in en). Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 15 (4): 387–402. doi:10.2307/622848. 
  10. ↑ Harris, Richard (1990-07-09). "Self-Building and the Social Geography of Toronto, 1901-1913: A Challenge for Urban Theory" (in en). Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 15 (4): 387–402. doi:10.2307/622848. 
  11. ↑ Harris, Richard (1990-07-09). "Self-Building and the Social Geography of Toronto, 1901-1913: A Challenge for Urban Theory" (in en). Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 15 (4): 387–402. doi:10.2307/622848. 
  12. ↑ Lens, M.C. (2017). "Measuring the geography of opportunity." (in en). Human Geography 41pp=3. 
  13. ↑ Lens, M.C. (1998). "Invisible Cities: Lewis Mumford, Thomas Adams, and the Invention of the Regional City, 1923-1929" (in en). Business and Economic History 27: 3. 
  14. ↑ Miller McClintock for the Chicago Association of Commerce, "Report and Recommendations of the Metropolitan Street Traffic Survey", p. 133, quoted by Norton, Fighting Traffic, on p. 289.
  15. ↑ Norton, Peter D. (2008) (in en). Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp. 78–79. 
  16. ↑ Norton, Peter D. (2007). "Street Rivals: Jaywalking and the Invention of the Motor Age Street" (in en). Technology and Culture 48 (2): 331–359 (342). doi:10.1353/tech.2007.0085. 
  17. ↑ Vanderbilt, Tom (2009-11-02). "In Defense of Jaywalking" (in en). https://slate.com/human-interest/2009/11/a-defense-of-jaywalking.html. 
  18. ↑ Stromberg, Joseph (May 11, 2016). "Highways Gutted American Cities. So Why Did They Build Them?". Vox. https://www.vox.com/2015/5/14/8605917/highways-interstate-cities-history. 
  19. ↑ Miller, Johnny (February 21, 2018). "Roads to Nowhere: How Infrastructure Built on American Inequality" (in en). London. http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/21/roads-nowhere-infrastructure-american-inequality. 
  20. ↑ Nall, Clayton; O'Keeffe, Zachary P. (2018). "What Did Interstate Highways Do to Urban Neighborhoods?". What Did Interstate Highways Do to Urban Neighborhoods?: 30. http://www.nallresearch.com/uploads/7/9/1/7/7917910/urbanhighways.pdf. Retrieved March 17, 2022. 
  21. ↑ Stromberg, Joseph (August 10, 2015). "The Real Reason American Public Transportation Is Such a Disaster". Vox. https://www.vox.com/2015/8/10/9118199/public-transportation-subway-buses. 
  22. ↑ Parker, M (2014). "Skyscrapers: The City and the Megacity." (in en). Hheory, Culture & Society 31pp=267. 
  23. ↑ Harris, R.; Lewis, R. (2001). "The Geography of North American Cities and Suburbs, 1900-1950: A New Synthesis." (in en). Journal of Urban History 27: 262. doi:10.1177/009614420102700302. 
  24. ↑ Wood, Derek; Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (1994). Trunk Roads and the Generation of Traffic. London: HMSO. p. 242. ISBN 0-11-551613-1. http://www.bettertransport.org.uk/sites/default/files/trunk-roads-traffic-report.pdf. 
  25. ↑ Cairns, Sally; Hass-Klau, Carmen; Goodwin, Phil (1998). Traffic Impact of Highway Capacity Reductions: Assessment of the Evidence. London: Landor Publishing. p. 261. ISBN 1-899650-10-5. 
  26. ↑ Cairns, Sally; Atkins, Stephen; Goodwin, Phil (2002). "Disappearing traffic? The story so far". Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Municipal Engineer 151 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1680/muen.2002.151.1.13. http://contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/reading/disappearing-traffic/resources/disappearing-traffic/. 
  27. ↑ Finlay, Jessica; Esposito, Michael; Kim, Min Hee; Gomez-Lopez, Iris; Clarke, Philippa (2019). "Closure of 'third places'? Exploring potential consequences for collective health and wellbeing" (in en). Health & Place 60: 3. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102225. PMID 31622919. 
  28. ↑ Pulido, Laura (Mar 2000). "Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 90 (1): 12–40. doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00182. http://www.geog.umn.edu/faculty/squires/courses/BSE3001/PulioEnvironmentalRacismWhitePrivilege.pdf. 
  29. ↑ "Info to GO". GO Transit. January 2017. http://www.gotransit.com/public/en/aboutus/GO%20Info%20To%20Go_EN_Jan%202017.pdf. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 H Ojah Maharaj, Shrimatee (2020). "Factors Affecting the Supply of "Missing Middle" Housing Types in Walkable Urban Core Neighborhoods". Muma Business Review 4: 001–015. doi:10.28945/4544. ISSN 2640-6373. 
  31. ↑ (in en) The Houses that Can't be Built in America - The Missing Middle, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CCOdQsZa15o, retrieved 2021-07-05 
  32. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing: Diverse choices for walkable neighborhood living" (in en-US). https://missingmiddlehousing.com/. 
  33. ↑ "What is "missing middle"? - Housing". https://housing.arlingtonva.us/missingmiddle/about/. 
  34. ↑ Schuetz, Alex Baca, Patrick McAnaney, and Jenny (2019-12-04). "'Gentle' density can save our neighborhoods" (in en-US). https://www.brookings.edu/research/gentle-density-can-save-our-neighborhoods/. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Finding Affordability in the Missing Middle" (in en-US). 25 November 2019. https://wc-studio.com/journal/2019/11/23/finding-affordability-in-the-missing-middle. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Housing Policy Toolkit". Sacramento Area Council of Governments. 2018-12-03. https://www.sacog.org/sites/main/files/housing_policy_toolkit_appendix_included_2018-12-3.pdf. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "The "Missing Middle" Affordable Housing Solution | Modern Cities". https://www.moderncities.com/article/2017-jan-the-missing-middle-affordable-housing-solution-page-3. 
  38. ↑ "5 Ways To Make the Missing Middle Less Missing" (in en-US). 19 July 2019. https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2019/7/19/5-ways-to-make-the-missing-middle-less-missing. 
  39. ↑ Litman, Todd (April 21, 2021). "Understanding Smart Growth Savings". https://www.vtpi.org/sg_save.pdf. 
  40. ↑ "Advancing Racial Equity Through Land-Use Planning". https://www.planning.org/pas/memo/2021/may/. 
  41. ↑ "Revisiting Single-Family Zoning: Creating Options for a More Affordable Housing Supply" (in en-US). https://www.lgc.org/newsletter/revisiting-single-family-zoning-creating-options-for-a-more-affordable-housing-supply/. 
  42. ↑ "Don't Miss the Middle: The Critical Role of Moderate-Priced Housing to Affordability" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/blogs/107442-dont-miss-middle-critical-role-moderate-priced-housing-affordability. 
  43. ↑ Ewing, Reid; Hamidi, Shima; Grace, James B.; Wei, Yehua Dennis (2016-04-01). "Does urban sprawl hold down upward mobility?" (in en). Landscape and Urban Planning 148: 80–88. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.11.012. ISSN 0169-2046. 
  44. ↑ Kim, Eun Jung; Kim, Jiyeong; Kim, Hyunjung (February 2020). "Does Environmental Walkability Matter? The Role of Walkable Environment in Active Commuting". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (4): 1261. doi:10.3390/ijerph17041261. ISSN 1661-7827. PMID 32075326. 
  45. ↑ Charron, David. "Analysis | Walkable neighborhoods provide health, environmental and financial benefits" (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/where-we-live/wp/2017/10/09/walkable-neighborhoods-provide-health-environmental-and-financial-benefits/. 
  46. ↑ "5 Questions for Architect Daniel Parolek About Missing Middle Housing" (in english). http://www.aarp.org/livable-communities/housing/info-2016/missing-middle-housing-daniel-parolek.html. 
  47. ↑ Koenig, Phoebe S.; Liebig, Teresa; Pynoos, Jon (2006-11-21). "Zoning, Accessory Dwelling Units, and Family Caregiving". Journal of Aging & Social Policy 18 (3–4): 155–172. doi:10.1300/J031v18n03_11. ISSN 0895-9420. PMID 17135101. https://doi.org/10.1300/J031v18n03_11. 
  48. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units: Case Study". Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research. https://www.huduser.gov/Publications/PDF/adu.pdf. 
  49. ↑ "ADUs Offer Options for Homeowners to Age in Place" (in english). http://www.aarp.org/home-family/your-home/info-2020/accessory-dwelling-unit.html. 
  50. ↑ Stanton, Melissa. "Multifamily, intergenerational housing" (in english). http://www.aarp.org/livable-communities/housing/info-2016/a-home-within-a-home.html. 
  51. ↑ "Reasons to Invest in Missing Middle Housing: A Call to Action for Cities and Developers" (in en-US). 2015-10-14. https://opticosdesign.com/blog/reasons-to-invest-in-missing-middle-housing-a-call-to-action-for-cities-and-developers/. 
  52. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing Study". Montgomery County Planning. September 2018. https://montgomeryplanning.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/MissingMiddleHousingStudy_9-2018.pdf. 
  53. ↑ "The 'Missing' Affordable Housing Solution" (in english). http://www.aarp.org/livable-communities/housing/info-2020/missing-middle-housing-affordability.html. 
  54. ↑ "Five Things to Know About Missing Middle Housing" (in en-US). https://www.missingmiddlearlington.net/insights/five-things-to-know. 
  55. ↑ Coppage, Jonathan (March 2017). "Accessoryt Dwelling Units: A Flexible Free-Market Housing Solution". https://www.rstreet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/89.pdf. 
  56. ↑ "Density, Form-Based Codes, and Missing Middle Housing". https://www.nahb.org/-/media/NAHB/advocacy/docs/industry-issues/land-use-101/state-local-affordability/missing-middle-housing-overview.pdf. 
  57. ↑ "It's Time to Abolish Single-Family Zoning" (in en-US). 3 July 2020. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/urbs/its-time-to-abolish-single-family-zoning/. 
  58. ↑ "Abolishing Single-Family-Only Zoning Expands Freedom and Choice" (in en-US). 2020-01-10. https://reason.com/2020/01/10/abolishing-single-family-only-zoning-expands-freedom-and-choice/. 
  59. ↑ "No Taking: Why the Abolition of Single-Family Zoning Doesn't Disturb Your Bundle of Sticks" (in en-US). https://ij.org/cje-post/no-taking-why-the-abolition-of-single-family-zoning-doesnt-disturb-your-bundle-of-sticks/. 
  60. ↑ "Uncovering the History of Race and Housing in Arlington" (in en-US). 3 October 2020. https://www.allianceforhousingsolutions.org/blog/uncovering-the-history-of-race-and-housing-in-arlington. 
  61. ↑ "Abolish Single-Family Zoning" (in en-US). 2020-09-09. https://chicagopolicyreview.org/2020/09/09/how-to-fix-a-housing-crisis/. 
  62. ↑ "Creating The Healthiest Nation: Health and Housing Equity". American Public Health Association. https://www.apha.org/-/media/files/pdf/topics/equity/health_and_housing_equity.ashx?la=en&hash=FEDA5CD7041C72CBA783AB614E5EC20CAA040DCA. 
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  64. ↑ "Advancing Racial Equity Through Land-Use Planning". https://www.planning.org/pas/memo/2021/may/. 
  65. ↑ "The Housing Supply Debate: Evaluating the Evidence" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/blogs/113295-housing-supply-debate-evaluating-evidence. 
  66. ↑ Gyourko, Joseph; Krimmel, Jacob (2021-07-05) (in en). The Impact of Local Residential Land Use Restrictions on Land Values Across and within Single Family Housing Markets. Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w28993. https://www.nber.org/papers/w28993. 
  67. ↑ "Zoning, Land-Use Planning, and Housing Affordability" (in en). 2017-10-18. https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/zoning-land-use-planning-housing-affordability. 
  68. ↑ Dorsey, Bryan (2013). "Planning, place-making and building consensus for transit-oriented development: Ogden, Utah case study" (in en). Journal of Transport Geography 32: 65–76. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.08.010. 
  69. ↑ Singh, Yamini Jain; Lukman, Azhari; Flacke, Johannes; Zuidgeest, Mark; Van Maarseveen, M.F.A.M. (2017). "Measuring TOD around transit nodes - Towards TOD policy" (in en). Transport Policy 56: 96–111. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2017.03.013. https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/c12314fc-284d-477b-a5b6-d22f0bbfa746. 
  70. ↑ "Introduction to Land use Planning System in Japan". Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. January 2003. http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000234477.pdf. 
  71. ↑ "Introduction to Land use Planning System in Japan". Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. January 2003. http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000234477.pdf. 
  72. ↑ Hoy, Selena (September 28, 2015). "Why Are Little Kids in Japan So Independent?". Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-28/in-japan-small-children-take-the-subway-and-run-errands-alone. 
  73. ↑ https://www.oecd.org/els/family/HC2-1-Living-space.pdf
  74. ↑ https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/poverty-neighbourhood-resident-experience-full.pdf
  75. ↑ "Form-Based Codes Defined". http://formbasedcodes.org/definition. 
  76. ↑ Parolek, Daniel (2020). Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today's Housing Crisis. Washington DC: Island Press. pp. 14–25. 
  77. ↑ "Characteristics" (in en-US). https://missingmiddlehousing.com/about/characteristics. 
  78. ↑ "Attainable Housing: Challenges, Perceptions and Solutions" (in en-US). https://americas.uli.org/attainable-housing/. 
  79. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing" (in en). 2018-09-18. https://thefield.asla.org/2018/09/18/missing-middle-housing/. 
  80. ↑ "The Types" (in en-US). https://missingmiddlehousing.com/types. 
  81. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing" (in en). 2015-06-12. https://www.cnu.org/our-projects/missing-middle-housing. 
  82. ↑ Agnew, Spencer. "CNU 21: Missing Middle Housing". http://blogs.stthomas.edu/realestate/2013/06/11/cnu-21-missing-middle-housing/. 
  83. ↑ Salt Lake City Television (26 June 2016). "Missing Middle Housing: Responding to the Demand for Walkable Urban Living". https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KLls6Vk-GM&feature=youtu.be&t=1281. 
  84. ↑ Parolek, Daniel (2020). Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today's Housing Crisis. Washington DC: Island Press. pp. 26–29. 
  85. ↑ "Finding the Middle: Overcoming Challenges to Building Missing Middle Housing – Metroscape" (in en-US). https://metroscape.imspdx.org/missing-middle-housing. 
  86. ↑ "12 Barriers to Missing Middle Housing". https://www.aarp.org/livable-communities/housing/info-2020/barriers-to-missing-middle-housing.html. 
  87. ↑ "Market" (in en-US). https://missingmiddlehousing.com/about/market. 
  88. ↑ "Reasons to Invest in Missing Middle Housing: A Call to Action for Cities and Developers" (in en-US). 2015-10-14. https://opticosdesign.com/blog/reasons-to-invest-in-missing-middle-housing-a-call-to-action-for-cities-and-developers/. 
  89. ↑ "Aging U.S. Population Boosts Demand for Missing Middle Housing". 3 June 2014. http://opticosdesign.com/growing-missing-middle-housing-demand-among-u-s-aging-population/. 
  90. ↑ Toppo, Greg. "Rocking the walking: Millennials drive new urban spaces". https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/06/17/walkable-urban-places-findings/10623587/. 
  91. ↑ Moore, Patrick J.. "U.S. Temporary Housing Trend: Millennials and the "Walkable Urban Neighborhood". http://www.bristolglobal.com/u-s-temporary-housing-trend-millennials-and-the-walkable-urban-neighborhood/. 
  92. ↑ "Market" (in en-US). https://missingmiddlehousing.com/about/market/. 
  93. ↑ Yung, John. "APA14: Demographic Preferences Shifting in Favor of Walkable, Urban Communities". http://www.urbancincy.com/2014/04/apa14-demographic-preferences-shifting-in-favor-of-walkable-urban-communities/. 
  94. ↑ "Innovations in Small-scale Living from North America". http://www.smallhousingbc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/SMHT_1stEdition_Feb2015.pdf. 
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 95.3 "Department of Land Conservation and Development : Housing Choices (House Bill 2001) : Urban Planning : State of Oregon". https://www.oregon.gov/lcd/UP/Pages/Housing-Choices.aspx. 
  96. ↑ Njus, Elliot (2019-06-30). "Bill to eliminate single-family zoning in Oregon neighborhoods passes final legislative hurdle" (in en). https://www.oregonlive.com/politics/2019/06/bill-to-eliminate-single-family-zoning-in-oregon-neighborhoods-passes-final-legislative-hurdle.html. 
  97. ↑ "Planners Secure Zoning Reform Win in Massachusetts". https://www.planning.org/blog/9211391/planners-secure-zoning-reform-win-in-massachusetts/. 
  98. ↑ "Bill H.5250 An Act enabling partnerships for growth". https://malegislature.gov/Bills/191/H5250. 
  99. ↑ "Chapter 40R | Mass.gov" (in en). https://www.mass.gov/service-details/chapter-40r. 
  100. ↑ "Smart Growth / Smart Energy Toolkit Modules - Chapter 40R (and Chapter 40S) | Mass.gov" (in en). https://www.mass.gov/service-details/smart-growth-smart-energy-toolkit-modules-chapter-40r-and-chapter-40s. 
  101. ↑ "Massachusetts Makes Broad Changes to the Zoning Act" (in en). The National Law Review. https://www.natlawreview.com/article/massachusetts-makes-broad-changes-to-zoning-act. 
  102. ↑ "Engrossed Second Substitute House Bill 1923". State of Washington, 66th Legislature. April 24, 2019. http://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2019-20/Pdf/Bills/House%20Passed%20Legislature/1923-S2.PL.pdf?q=20210213102620. 
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  104. ↑ "Box". https://deptofcommerce.app.box.com/s/zyw647pe3azy7itd3it0bge7263u2pe7. 
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  106. ↑ "Governor Mills Signs Bills to Address Maine's Housing Shortage | Office of Governor Janet T. Mills" (in en). http://www.maine.gov/governor/mills/news/governor-mills-signs-bills-address-maines-housing-shortage-2022-04-27. 
  107. ↑ Guildford, David (April 27, 2022). "Mills signs housing bills into law" (in en-US). https://www.newscentermaine.com/article/news/local/mills-signs-housing-bills-into-law-historic-property-rehabilitation-tax-credit-multi-unit-properties/97-36a11d06-5d39-4da1-aa37-5855c22fb9bd. 
  108. ↑ Revello, Katherine (2022-03-08). "Affordable housing bill pushes local deregulation while questioning the extent of local control" (in en-US). https://www.themainewire.com/2022/03/affordable-housing-bill-pushes-local-deregulation-while-questioning-the-extent-of-local-control/. 
  109. ↑ "Bill Status S.237 (Act 179)". https://legislature.vermont.gov/bill/status/2020/S.237. 
  110. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units". https://accd.vermont.gov/housing/planning/adu. 
  111. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units" (in en-US). https://www.nhhfa.org/housing-challenges-solutions/accessory-dwelling-units/. 
  112. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units in New Hampshire: A Guide for Municipalities". https://www.nhhfa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ADU_Guide_Municipalities.pdf. 
  113. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs)". https://www.hcd.ca.gov/policy-research/accessorydwellingunits.shtml#effective. 
  114. ↑ "Bill Text - AB-68 Land use: accessory dwelling units.". https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201920200AB68. 
  115. ↑ Visentin, Lisa (2016-10-16). "Terrace housing to come to Sydney suburbs under NSW government proposal" (in en). https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/terrace-housing-to-come-to-sydney-suburbs-under-nsw-government-proposal-20161014-gs2n78.html. 
  116. ↑ "Low Rise Housing Diversity" (in en). http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Policy-and-Legislation/Housing/Low-Rise-Housing-Diversity-Code. 
  117. ↑ "Connecticut House passes scaled back zoning reform bill". 2021-05-21. https://apnews.com/article/connecticut-bills-government-and-politics-03a7d82c051c5743929232bcc5a3de5f. 
  118. ↑ "Connecticut planners take on zoning reform". https://www.planning.org/blog/9214430/connecticut-planners-take-zoning-reform-fight-to-the-state/. 
  119. ↑ "Senate passes controversial zoning reform bill despite opposition" (in en-US). 2021-05-28. http://ctmirror.org/2021/05/28/senate-passes-controversial-zoning-reform-bill/. 
  120. ↑ "Connecticut Is Considering Statewide Zoning Reform. This Map May Be Why" (in en). https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/connecticut-is-considering-statewide-zoning-reform-this-map-may-be-why. 
  121. ↑ "Connecticut planners take on zoning reform". https://www.planning.org/blog/9214430/connecticut-planners-take-zoning-reform-fight-to-the-state/. 
  122. ↑ "Illinois General Assembly - Bill Status for HB4869". https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/BillStatus.asp?DocNum=4869&GAID=15&DocTypeID=HB&LegId=124933&SessionID=108&GA=101. 
  123. ↑ "LIS > Bill Tracking > HB152 > 2020 session". https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?201+sum+HB152. 
  124. ↑ "Legislation - HB1406". http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Legislation/Details/HB1406?ys=2020RS. 
  125. ↑ Holt, Alex (March 18, 2020). "Two bills that address the housing crisis in Maryland move closer to becoming law" (in en). https://ggwash.org/view/76702/two-of-three-bills-that-could-assage-the-housing-crisis-in-maryland-inch-closer-to-becoming-law. 
  126. ↑ "Nebraska Legislature - Legislative Document". https://nebraskalegislature.gov/bills/view_bill.php?DocumentID=40998. 
  127. ↑ "'Missing Middle Housing Act' Would Allow More Housing Options in Nebraska Residential Areas" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/news/2020/01/108025-missing-middle-housing-act-would-allow-more-housing-options-nebraska-residential. 
  128. ↑ "HB 134 - FastDemocracy" (in en-US). https://fastdemocracy.com/bill-search/mt/2021/bills/MTB00008243/. 
  129. ↑ "House Bill No. 134 – Introduced by D. Tenenbaum". https://leg.mt.gov/bills/2021/billhtml/HB0134.htm. 
  130. ↑ "What are the rules where I live?" (in en). 2011-10-29. https://accessorydwellings.org/adu-regulations-by-city/. 
  131. ↑ "Zoning Ordinance Research". 2019. https://durhamnc.gov/DocumentCenter/View/27611/Attachment-H-Zoning-Ordinance-Research. 
  132. ↑ "The Missing Middle Housing Study". The Montgomery County Planning Department, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission. September 2018. https://montgomeryplanning.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/MissingMiddleHousingStudy_9-2018.pdf. 
  133. ↑ "Better Housing by Design project documents" (in en). https://www.portland.gov/bps/better-housing/project-documents. 
  134. ↑ "About the Residential Infill Project" (in en). https://www.portland.gov/bps/rip/about-project. 
  135. ↑ "Portland just passed the best low-density zoning reform in US history" (in en-US). 2020-08-11. https://www.sightline.org/2020/08/11/on-wednesday-portland-will-pass-the-best-low-density-zoning-reform-in-us-history/. 
  136. ↑ "Neighborhood upzones for affordable housing: Q&A on proposal with Seattle mayor's adviser" (in en-US). 2018-05-09. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/neighborhood-upzones-for-affordable-housing-qa-on-proposal-with-seattle-mayors-adviser/. 
  137. ↑ "SEATTLE CITY COUNCIL - Record No: CB 119444". http://seattle.legistar.com/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=3840745&GUID=7E5F305E-10DA-41F3-AE5D-66E3CAEB81B1. 
  138. ↑ "SEATTLE CITY COUNCIL - Record No: CB 119544". https://seattle.legistar.com/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=3976805&GUID=6402D8F2-8188-4891-B449-A160356FFD87. 
  139. ↑ "This Washington City Quietly Eliminated Single-Family Zoning" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/news/2021/08/114266-washington-city-quietly-eliminated-single-family-zoning. 
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  141. ↑ "MBAKS Housing Toolkit Local Planning Measures for Creating More Housing Choices". May 1, 2021. https://www.mbaks.com/docs/default-source/documents/advocacy/issue-briefs/mbaks-housing-toolkit.pdf. 
  142. ↑ "13-3-3: USES" (in en-US). https://codelibrary.amlegal.com/codes/ortingwa/latest/orting_wa/0-0-0-7369. 
  143. ↑ "Wenatchee City Code". https://www.codepublishing.com/WA/Wenatchee/#!/Wenatchee10/Wenatchee1010.html#10.10. 
  144. ↑ "Land Use Code Amendments | Eugene, OR Website". https://www.eugene-or.gov/764/Land-Use-Code-Amendments. 
  145. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing Types Handbook". City of Eugene. June 2017. https://www.eugene-or.gov/3652/Missing-Middle-Handbook. 
  146. ↑ Fesler, Stephen (2020-12-14). "Olympia Enacts Targeted Citywide Missing Middle Housing Reform, Using GMA and SEPA 'Safe Harbor'" (in en-US). https://www.theurbanist.org/2020/12/14/olympia-enacts-targeted-citywide-missing-middle-housing-reform-using-gma-and-sepa-safe-harbor/. 
  147. ↑ "Missing Middle". http://olympiawa.gov/city-government/codes-plans-and-standards/missing-middle.aspx. 
  148. ↑ "Municipal Code" (in en-us). 2020-04-26. https://my.spokanecity.org/smc/?Section=17C.110.350. 
  149. ↑ "Infill Housing Strategies/Infill Development" (in en-us). 2020-04-26. https://my.spokanecity.org/projects/infill-housing-strategies-infill-development/. 
  150. ↑ "Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs)" (in en). https://www.cob.org/services/planning/development/Pages/adu-ordinance-updates.aspx. 
  151. ↑ "Home In Tacoma Project: AHAS Planning Actions - City of Tacoma" (in en-US). https://www.cityoftacoma.org/cms/one.aspx?pageId=180033. 
  152. ↑ Casas, Rubén (2021-01-22). "Tacoma's Missing Middle Housing: Planning for Access, Affordability, and Mobility" (in en-US). https://www.theurbanist.org/2021/01/22/tacomas-missing-middle-housing-planning-for-access-affordability-and-mobility/. 
  153. ↑ "Housing Options". https://www.tigard-or.gov/housingoptions/. 
  154. ↑ "Housing Innovations Program" (in en). https://www.psrc.org/hip. 
  155. ↑ "MRSC - Affordable Housing". http://mrsc.org/Home/Explore-Topics/Planning/Specific-Planning-Subjects-Plan-Elements/Affordable-Housing-Ordinances-Flexible-Provisions.aspx. 
  156. ↑ "Residential Buildings with up to Three Units" (in en). http://www.minneapolismn.gov/cped/planning/WCMSP-220319. 
  157. ↑ "Housing". https://minneapolis2040.com/topics/housing/. 
  158. ↑ Kahlenberg, Richard D. (2019-10-24). "Minneapolis Saw That NIMBYism Has Victims" (in en-US). https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/10/how-minneapolis-defeated-nimbyism/600601/. 
  159. ↑ 159.0 159.1 "Three Cheers for Minneapolis (The 3 is for Triplex)" (in en-US). https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2018/12/12/three-cheers-for-minneapolis-the-3-is-for-triplex. 
  160. ↑ "Allowing Intentional Community Cluster Developments" (in en). http://www.minneapolismn.gov/cped/planning/WCMSP-220394. 
  161. ↑ "How Minneapolis became the first to end single-family zoning". November 23, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mWE9UJDRLw. 
  162. ↑ "Minneapolis has officially eliminated single-family zoning" (in en-US). https://www.inman.com/2019/10/25/minneapolis-has-officially-eliminated-single-family-zoning/. 
  163. ↑ "How Minneapolis Ended Single-Family Zoning" (in en). 2019-10-24. https://tcf.org/content/report/minneapolis-ended-single-family-zoning/. 
  164. ↑ "Minneapolis City Council unanimously eliminates parking requirements". https://www.startribune.com/minneapolis-city-council-unanimously-eliminates-parking-requirements/600057275/. 
  165. ↑ "Sacramento moves toward becoming one of 1st U.S. cities to eliminate single-family zoning" (in en-US). 2021-01-21. https://ktla.com/news/california/sacramento-moves-toward-becoming-one-of-1st-u-s-cities-to-eliminate-single-family-zoning/. 
  166. ↑ Ravani, Sarah (2021-02-26). "Berkeley vows to end single-family zoning by end of 2022: 'Right the wrongs of our past'" (in en-US). https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/Berkeley-vows-to-end-single-family-zoning-by-the-15976115.php. 
  167. ↑ "Berkeley denounces racist history of single-family zoning" (in en-US). 2021-02-25. https://www.berkeleyside.com/2021/02/24/berkeley-denounces-racist-history-of-single-family-zoning-begins-2-year-process-to-change-general-plan. 
  168. ↑ "Berkeley officials push for zoning reform to boost 'missing middle' housing" (in en-US). 2019-02-26. https://www.berkeleyside.com/2019/02/26/berkeley-officials-push-for-zoning-reform-to-boost-missing-middle-housing. 
  169. ↑ "Pattern Zoning in Midtown" (in en-US). https://www.bryantx.gov/midtownpatterns/. 
  170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 Steuteville, Robert (2020-05-12). "'Pattern zone' enables quality infill development" (in en). https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2020/05/12/pattern-zone-enables-quality-infill-development. 
  171. ↑ Grabar, Henry (2021-04-12). ""Good Design" Is Making Bad Cities" (in en). https://slate.com/business/2021/04/good-design-bad-cities-zoning-commissions-preservation-boards.html. 
  172. ↑ "Norfolk's 'Missing Middle Pattern Book' Aims to Streamline Permitting for Multi-Family Housing" (in en). https://www.planetizen.com/news/2021/08/114275-norfolks-missing-middle-pattern-book-aims-streamline-permitting-multi-family. 
  173. ↑ "Missing Middle Pattern Book". June 22, 2021. https://www.norfolk.gov/DocumentCenter/View/66555/MissingMiddlePatternBook. 
  174. ↑ Gordon, Wyatt (2021-07-23). "How to bring the 'missing middle' to Virginia housing development" (in en-US). https://www.virginiamercury.com/2021/07/23/how-to-bring-the-missing-middle-to-virginia-housing-development/. 
  175. ↑ "Municode Library". https://library.municode.com/mi/grand_rapids/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=TITV--ZONING_PLANNING_CH61ZOOR_ART5REZODI. 
  176. ↑ "Housing NOW!" (in en-US). https://www.grandrapidsmi.gov/Government/Programs-and-Initiatives/Housing-NOW. 
  177. ↑ "Expanding Housing Choices | Durham, NC". https://durhamnc.gov/3679/Expanding-Housing-Choices. 
  178. ↑ "Expanding Housing Choices in Durham, North Carolina | HUD USER". https://www.huduser.gov/portal/rbc/indepth/interior-072621.html. 
  179. ↑ "Kirkland, Washington: Cottage Housing Ordinance | HUD USER". https://www.huduser.gov/portal/casestudies/study_102011_2.html. 
  180. ↑ "Missing Middle Housing in Montgomery County" (in en-US). https://montgomeryplanning.org/planning/housing/missing-middle-housing/. 
  181. ↑ "Bloomington City Council passes UDO plex ordinance, zoning map". https://www.idsnews.com/article/2021/05/cacitycouncilpt2051321. 
  182. ↑ Bouthier, Bente. "How Inclusive Were Plex Amendment Conversations? City Talks About Lessons Learned". https://indianapublicmedia.org/news/how-inclusive-were-plex-amendment-conversations-city-planning-and-transportation-talks-about-lessons-learned.php. 
  183. ↑ "Municode Library". https://library.municode.com/ga/dekalb_county/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=CODECO_CH27ZO. 
  184. ↑ Capelouto, J. D.. "How can Decatur fix its affordable housing problem?" (in English). The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. https://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta-news/how-can-decatur-fix-its-affordable-housing-problem/GF2QT7RQEVHWNMLBVL3H5WDFFI/. 
  185. ↑ "Looking for the 'Missing Middle' –Decatur faces hard choices on affordable housing" (in en-US). 2018-11-13. https://decaturish.com/2018/11/looking-for-the-missing-middle-decatur-faces-hard-choices-on-affordable-housing/. 
  186. ↑ "Proposal Number. 178, 2021". City of Indianapolis Marion County. August 9, 2021. https://citybase-cms-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/b0358fe922df425fb93455a1017d3967.pdf. 
  187. ↑ Sheridan, Jill (2021-08-16). "Transit Oriented Development Goal Of Zoning Amendments" (in en-us). https://www.wfyi.org/news/articles/transit-oriented-development-goal-of-zoning-amendments. 
  188. ↑ "Infill Housing Guidelines 2021 Update". City of Indianapolis. May 29, 2021. https://citybase-cms-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/a9228434eba047f8972f4dcb64e5b313.pdf. 
  189. ↑ Danielle, Chemtob (May 18, 2021). "Charlotte council narrowly keeps changes to single-family zoning in city's growth plan". https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/business/development/article251480853.html. 
  190. ↑ "'We're not eliminating single-family zoning' | Planning director calms fears about city's growth" (in en-US). 7 March 2021. https://www.wcnc.com/article/news/politics/flashpoint/single-family-zoning-charlotte-planning-housing/275-fce5f1e7-7ec6-4587-bd47-de3e6abeaf2e. 
  191. ↑ "Missing Middle: Adding More Affordable Housing in Raleigh" (in en). https://raleighnc.gov/news/2021-07-06-missing-middle-adding-more-affordable-housing-raleigh. 
  192. ↑ "What is the Missing Middle?" (in en). https://raleighnc.gov/SupportPages/what-missing-middle. 
  193. ↑ "More housing choice in NC cities? That's a good thing". The Charlotte Observer (The Charlotte Observer Editorial Board). July 9, 2021. https://www.charlotteobserver.com/article252624998.html. 
  194. ↑ Johnson, Anna (July 7, 2021). "Raleigh approves 'gentle density' measure to add duplexes, townhomes to neighborhoods". https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/counties/wake-county/article252617598.html. 
  195. ↑ "ADU | DRP". https://planning.lacounty.gov/adu. 
  196. ↑ "City Council Approves Additional Dwelling Unit (ADU) Ordinance". City of Chicago. December 16, 2020. https://www.chicago.gov/content/dam/city/depts/mayor/Press%20Room/Press%20Releases/2020/December/ApprovesAdditionalDwellingUnit.pdf. 
  197. ↑ "ADU proposal" (in en). https://www.lexingtonky.gov/accessory-dwelling-units-proposal. 
  198. ↑ "ADU". http://sccoplanning.com/ADU.aspx#:~:text=Accessory%20Dwelling%20Units%20(ADUs),,shortage%20and%20high%20housing%20costs.. 
  199. ↑ "Missing Middle Zoning Review". City of Edmonton. 2020-04-26. https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/urban_planning_and_design/medium-scale-housing-review.aspx. 
  200. ↑ "Create or legalize a secondary suite" (in en). City of Vancouver. https://vancouver.ca/home-property-development/creating-a-secondary-suite.aspx. 
  201. ↑ "Why Vancouver Trounces the Rest of Cascadia in Building ADUs" (in en-US). 2016-02-17. https://www.sightline.org/2016/02/17/why-vancouver-trounces-the-rest-of-cascadia-in-building-adus/. 
  202. ↑ Cheung, Christopher (2020-12-14). "This Video Perfectly Explains Vancouver's 'Missing Middle' Housing Mystery" (in English). https://thetyee.ca/Analysis/2020/12/14/Vancouver-Missing-Middle-Housing-Mystery/. 
  203. ↑ 203.0 203.1 "Information archivée dans le Web". Public Services and Procurement Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/site/archivee-archived.html?url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2011/schl-cmhc/nh18-1-2/NH18-1-2-37-2002-eng.pdf. 
  204. ↑ 204.0 204.1 (in en) Five Dense "Missing Middle" Neighbourhoods in Montreal, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYCAVmKzX10, retrieved 2021-07-05 
  205. ↑ "Urban kchoze: Les escaliers de Montréal vs towers of Toronto". 2014-04-23. https://urbankchoze.blogspot.com/2014/04/les-escaliers-de-montreal-vs-towers-of.html. 
  206. ↑ "'Missing middle' housing focus of new 30-year plan for Greater Adelaide" (in en). https://architectureau.com/articles/missing-middle-housing-focus-of-new-30-year-plan-for-greater-adelaide/. 
  207. ↑ "People and Neighborhoods Policy and Discussion Paper". Government of South Australia State Planning Commission. September 2019. https://www.saplanningportal.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/584993/People_and_Neighbourhoods_Policy_Discussion_Paper.pdf. 
  208. ↑ "Medium Density Housing Review". October 2018. https://www.moreland.vic.gov.au/globalassets/areas/amendments/amendmentslib-7208/c189/medium-density-housing-review-2018.pdf. 

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