History:Suphannabhum

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Suphannabhum or Suvarnabhumi; later known as Suphan Buri (Thai: สุพรรณภูมิ or สุพรรณบุรี) was a Siamese city-state, that emerged in the early "Siam proper" which stretched from present-day west central Thailand to the north of the Kra Isthmus, with key historical sites at Uthong,[1]: 4–6  Nakhon Pathom,[2]: 140 [3] Suphan Buri,[4]: 40  and Ban Don Ta Phet (th).[5] The kingdom is referred to as Xiān in the Chinese records since 1349,[4]: 40  but according to the archaeological evidence in Suphan Buri, it was speculated to have emerged around the mid-12th century.[6]: 276–7  However, a calculation made by Borihan Thepthani based on the information provided in the Northern Chronicle (th) says that the city of Suphan Buri was founded in 877 and became a free city-state after its suzerain, Nakhon Pathom of Kamalanka, fell to Phetchaburi in 913.[7]: 67  Japanese scholar Tatsuo Hoshino has proposed that Suphannabhum was identified in Chinese sources as Shě Bá Ruò (舍跋若), which he further interprets as the western terminus of a trans-Mekong trade confederation in the 9th century. According to this hypothesis, the confederation comprised five polities: Pó Àn (婆岸), identified with Mueang Phon; Zhān Bó, associated with Champasri; Qiān Zhī Fú, identified with Si Thep; Mó Là (摩臘), located in the coastal region of Champa; and Shě Bá Ruò, corresponding to Suphanburi.[8]: 30 

Suphannabhum became the center of Xiān, succeeding Phip Phli, no later than 1349, when Xiān was defeated by Luó hú (Lavo) and the tribute sent to China under the name of Xiānluó hú (Siam-Lavo or Ayutthaya Kingdom) was led by Xiān's King of Su-men-bang, in which Su-men-bang has been identified with Suphanburi.[4]: 40  Since then, it was one of the states under the mandala confederation of Ayutthaya Kingdom and was completely merged to the Ayutthaya in 1438.[6]: 282  However, modern scholars suggest Xiān mentioned in the Chinese and Đại Việt sources since the 11th century potentially was Ayodhya, a polity that later known as the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Xiānluó hú or Xiānluó) in the mid-14th century.[9][10]

Under the name of Xiānluó hú or Xiānluó, the state performed 41 tributary missions to the Chinese court during the Hongwu era, 33 in the name of Xiānluó hú and as Xiānluó for the remaining.[4]: 40 [11]: 70  In the era of Ankorian king Jayavarman VII (r.1181–1218), an inscription called Prasat Phra Khan (จารึกปราสาทพระขรรค์) was made, among others, the name Suvarnapura is mentioned, which has been identified with Suphanburi.[12]

Modern scholars believe Suphannabhum was Chen Li Fu[13] mentioned in the Chinese Sung Hui Yao Kao in 1200 and 1205.[14]: 1 

History

According to the local legends, Suphannabhum is the succeeding state of an ancient port city of Mueang Uthong,[15][16] which evolved into complex state societies around 300 C.E.[17]: 300, 302, 306–307  Since the river leading to the sea was dried up in places, shallow, and consequently not navigable, and also due to some pandemics, Uthong lost its influence as the trading hub; the city was then abandoned around the 11th century and the people then moved to resettle in the present day Suphanburi.[15][16][18]: 6, 27–9  This timeline corresponds with that the Tambralinga's king Sujita seized Lavo and was said to conquer the Mons of the Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula in the 10th century,[19]: 283 [18]: 16  the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation of Lavo,[20] as well as the Pagan invasion of Lavo around the mid-10th century.[18]: 41 [21]: 4  All of these are probably the causes of the fall of Mueang Uthong.[19]: 283 [18]: 41 

Dvaravati period: Suvarnabhumi

This region has been claimed to be the legendary Suvarnabhumi by several local scholars.[22][23] Numerous ruins and artifacts from the Dvaravati period have been discovered around the area. However, contemporary documents from this period are sparse; the available material consists primarily of local chronicles and legends.[18]: 12–3 

Paul Wheatley suggests that the city-state of Chin Lin which was mentioned in the Chinese archives of the Liang dynasty as the state that was Fan Man, the Great King of Funan Kingdom, attempt to conquer in the 4th century CE, might be located in west central Thailand, since the word "Chin Lin" 金鄰/金邻 means "Land of Gold" or "Suvarnabhumi"; as mentioned in the archive, it was a state located approximately 2,000 li (800 kilometers) west of the Funan Kingdom, which corresponded to the area where is now central Thailand.[24]: 116–117 [25]

According to the Northern Chronicle (th), the region's political center from the 9th to 12th centuries was located at the old Kanchanaburi city ruins but local legends suggest it was in the old town Nakhon Pathom (formerly known as Nakhon Chaisri),[26]: 56–60  which has been speculated to be the center of Dvaravati.[27]: 281  As per Chalerm Kanchanakam's calculations based on the text provided in the Yonok Chronicle, which states that Phraya Phan, the founder of Suphan Buri, ascended to rule Haripuñjaya in 913,[28]: 530  it is estimated that Suphan Buri was founded around 877–883.[29]

George Cœdès believed that Mueang Uthong was the center of the Dvaravati civilization.[30]: 18 

Post-Dvaravati: Suphannabhum

After the end of the ancient maritime-oriented port era and the decline of Dvaravati, Suphannabhum then emerged around the mid-12th century following the prosperity of Lavo Kingdom and the Ankorian during the reign of Jayavarman VII and the influx of people from the north.[6]: 276–7  This has been supported by several ancient ruins in the area that dates before the Ayutthaya period;[31]: 4  two of them are the Ankorian Bayon style and the other two are the Indian Pala-Sena architects, which are also found in Lavo, Pagan, and Haripuñjaya.[6]: 276–7 

According to the Northern Chronicle (th), the city of Suphanburi existed before the mid-12 century since King Kar Tayy, who was of the Mon's Pagan Saw Lu lineage and ruled Kanchanaburi (some versions say Nakhon Chaisri) from 1165 to 1205, ordered his relative to build a temple in Phanthumburi (พันธุมบุรี) and renamed the city to Songphanburi (สองพันบุรี; present-Suphanburi).[26]: 60  Katae's reign ended around the same time that Phrip Phri's king, Mahesvastidrādhirājakṣatriya or Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri (พระพนมทะเลศรี), who was also father of King Uthong II of Lavo's Ayodhya, expanded his power northward to Phraek Si Racha (in present-day Chai Nat) in 1204 and sent his praeceptor to govern. The area he conquered also encompassed Suphannabhum and the proposed region of Chen Li Fu.[32]: 21  The younger prince, Soi La or U Thong I, was then enthroned as a new Suphannabhum's king.[33]

The 12th century Prasat Phra Khan Inscription (จารึกปราสาทพระขรรค์) marks the prosperity and civilization of this region by mentioning four major cities in the Suphannabhum area, including Suphanburi, Samphukapatthana, Ratburi, and Phetburi.[32]: 58  One of these, Suphanburi, gradually controlled the economy of all Tha Chin Rivers and raised its power until being annexed to the Sukhothai Kingdom in 1283, as recorded in the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription.[31] : 3  However, after the death of Sukhothai's Ram Khamhaeng in 1298, several tributary states of Sukhothai, which included Suphannabhum, began to break away rapidly.[34] Via Royal intermarriage, Suphannabhum united with the eastern neighboring Lavo Kingdom, to establish a confederated polity seat in Ayodhya in 1351. Suphannabhum gained recognition in the mid-13th century when the state leaders named ‘Khun Laung Pao Ngouy’ (later Ayutthaya's Borommarachathirat I) and ‘Jao Nakhon In’ (later Ayutthaya's Intharacha) extended their political economy influence to Ayutthaya.[6]: 272–3 

In the early Ayutthaya period, Suphannabhum was ruled by the Ayutthaya's crown princes.[35] It was demoted to the frontier city and was completely annexed to Ayutthaya in 1438.[6]: 282  Since then, Suphannabhum has been completely restricted in terms of both economics and politics, particularly in terms of trade with China and establishing relations with other cities, because it was determined to have relations only with the capital, acting as a military base and producing tribute for the capital. These transformed Suphannabhum into an agricultural area to supply Ayutthaya for export.[21]: 5–6 

Loe Thai
□
Uthong□Baromaraja IPrincessLithai
RamesuanThong LanSri ThephahuratIntharacha IPrincessLuethai
RamrachaChao Sam PhrayaDeviSaileuthai
TrailokPhaya RamBoromapan

Left chart shows the royal intermarriage between the Suphannabhum dynasty of Suphan Buri and the Uthong dynasty of Lavo Kingdom, which led to the formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.[31]: 4–6  The close connection between the Suphannabhum dynasty and the Sukhothai dynasty has also been observed.[36]

  Uthong dynasty of Lavo
  Suphannabhum dynasty of Suphanburi
  Phra Ruang (Sukhothai) dynasty of Sukhothai

Dynasties

Uthong I and his brother

According to the Northern Chronicle (th), the throne at Phanthumburi (พันธุมบุรี, present-day Suphanburi) was empty following the reign of King Kar Tayy; r. 1123–1163), who was of the Pagan lineage and ruled the polity during Pagan domination of the upper Malay peninsula during the late 11th to 12th centuries. To the north, Uthong I and his brother moved south from Mueang Chaliang (the 1684 Instructions Given to the Siamese Envoys Sent to Portugal says they were from Soucouttae, whereas the Du Royaume de Siam says Locontàï). Uthong I, the younger brother, then took over the empty throne,[26]: 60–1  and the older prince, Pprappanom Tteleiseri or Mahesvastidrādhirājakṣatriya moved further south and became King of Phrip Phri. Du Royaume de Siam, by Simon de la Loubère, gives the date of the enthronement of Pprappanom Tteleiseri at Phetchaburi as around 1188.[37][38][39][40]: 41–42  Meanwhile, Dhanit Yupho provides the date that this dynasty began to rule Thepnakhòn (or Devanagara), which corresponds to Suphanburi, as 1163.[32]: 61  The story related to the older prince is also mentioned in the southern Nakhon Si Thammarat Chronicle (th) says Mahesvastidrādhirājakṣatriya, who was also the father of Uthong II, the king of Xiān's Ayodhya, extended his territory north and south. To the north reached Phraek Si Racha, where he appointed his praeceptor as the governor, annexed Chen Li Fu in 1204,[32]: 21  and Mahīđharavarman III who was believed to have some relation with the Mahidharapura Kingdoms in the Phimai region, enthroned as the new king.[41] To the south, he encountered Tambralinga in 1196, but the dispute ended with the negotiation and the establishment of the royal relationship.[42]: 41 [43]: 292–3  His younger son, U Thong II, became the king of Ayodhya in 1205, and the older prince Thonglanrach (r. ?–1289) succeeded him at Phetchaburi. Through a dynastic relationship, another prince, Phanomwang (พนมวัง), moved south to revive Ligor following the fall of Tambralinga in the 14th century.[44]: 81 

Uthong II and the two contested theories of origin

As it says in the Nakhon Si Thammarat Chronicle (th), King of Xiān's Ayodhya named U Thong (II) was the son of Pprappanom Tteleiseri, king of Phrip Phri; therefore, He may have been a distinct monarch from U Thong (I), the King of Suphannaphum, who was the younger sibling of Pprappanom Tteleiseri, referenced in the Northern Chronicle (th). Even in contrast to several chronicles, a Thai scholar, Manit Wallipodom, claims that U Thong (II) of Ayodhya (r. 1205–1253) was the son of the predecessor Dhammikaraja.[45] The succession to the Ayodhya throne of U Thong II is told in the British Museum version of the Royal Chronicle of the Kingdom of Siam (th) that the King of Kampoch (Ayodhya), potentially King Dhammikaraja who reigned from 1165 to 1205, died with no male heir, the nobles then offered the throne to a plutocrat Uthong II, who then relocated the city to the south due to the endemics. This conforms to the text given in the Northern Chronicle that says the son of a Chinese mercenary named Uthong became the new ruler of Ayodhya. Thus, Uthong II was potentially the son of Pprappanom Tteleiseri, who was born to a Chinese queen. Before becoming King of Ayodhya, U Thong II was the king of Devanagara, succeeding his uncle U Thong I.

Suphannaphum clan: a new dynasty by U Thong III–IV

Several evidence regards the dynasty of Kings U Thong I–II, such as the movement of Pprappanom Tteleiseri from Yassouttora Nacoora Louang or Tasoo Nacora Louang — which several scholars identified with Lavo — to the upper Menam Valley at Soucouttae–Locontàï, the appointment of Mahīđharavarman III — who had some dynastic relations with the Mahidharapura Kingdoms to the east of Lavo – as a new king of Chen Li Fu, and a political asylum of Ramesuan to Lavo after lost Ayutthya throne to Suphannuphum dynasty in 1370, show a strong connection between this dynasty and the Lavo Kingdom in the eastern Menam Valley. Whereas, the latter Kings U Thong III–IV, who were the predecessors of Borommarachathirat I, the first Ayutthaya king from the Suphannaphum dynasty, instead show the relation with the Sukhothai Kingdom to the north in both royal intermarriage, political movements, and architectural styles; thus the origin of this dynasty may be linked to Sukhothai.[46] During the reign of U Thong III, Suphannabhum was listed in the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription as one of Sukhothai vassals.

The presupposition mentioned above conforms to a local legend of Thao Saenpom (th), a commoner who married a princess of Trai Trueng (th) — a city which was built by Singhanavati's Chaiyasiri in 1000[47] and was later under the Sukhothai Kingdom — but both were expelled by the king of Trai Trueng. They moved south and established Thepnakhòn (or Devanagara; เทพนคร),[48] which Dhanit Yupho equates with Suphanburi.[32]: 60–1  His son U Thong (III) succeeded him.[48] Some argues Thao Saenpom was not a commoner but instead a prince of Sri Vijaya (present-day Nakhon Pathom or Sumbuka of Kamalanka).[49] Dhanit Yupho instead says Suphanburi was ruled by the same dynasty (Lavo dynasty) since the reign of King U Thong I in 1163 to the establishment of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1351, and additionally asserts that this dynasty ruled Trai Trueng (th) from 1004 to 1163, then moved the seat to Suphanburi.[32]: 60–1  King Rama VI even identified U Thong (III), son of Saenpom, with U Thong (V), who was the first Ayutthyan king.[50] However, the theory that says U Thong V of the Uthong dynasty (later known as Lavo dynasty) was from the western Valley has been proven to be false.[18]: 103 

Emergence of Ayutthaya by U Thong V

Previously, scholars believed U Thong V or Ramatibodi I, the first Ayutthaya King, was from Mueang Uthong, the predecessor of Suphanburi in the western valley. However, later historical document studies revealed that he was of the Lavo in the eastern plain.[51][52] Due to U Thong IV having no male heir, U Thong V, who married a princess of King U Thong III, took over the Suphanburi throne in 1341. One year later, U Thong V was appointed by his father, Boromracha — who ruled Xiān's Ayodhya — as the governor of Phetchaburi. However, Boromracha was ordained as a monk in 1344 and appointed U Thong V as regent, making U Thong V the ruler of all early Siamese polities, including Suphanburi, Phetchaburi, and Ayodhya. He also relocated Ayodhya to the present Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya; this new city took 8 years to complete. After that, U Thong V was enthroned as the first Ayutthaya King by uniting all principalities in the lower Menam Valley in 1350/1351.[45] He appointed his queen consort's older brother, Borommarachathirat I, to rule Suphanburi.

Suphannabhum clan origin

The origin of the Suphannabhum dynasty remains unclear. Previous scholars believed that the first king of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, later called by modern historians King Uthong, once ruled the city of Uthong,[18]: 1, 10  but the theory has been proven to be false.[18]: 103  It was expected that Khun Laung Pho Ngouy, who was later known as the 3rd Ayutthaya' king Borommarachathirat I – the first king from Suphannabhum clan, might have lineage from Sukhothai as he married a princess in Sukhothai's Loe Thai and royal intermarriages between his descendants and the Sukhothai dynasty happened multiple times.[36] Furthermore, political movements and architectural styles in Suphanburi during the Ayutthaya period demonstrate a tight relationship between these two dynasties. The kinship between the royal families of Suphanburi and Sukhothai probably existed for a long time, at least since the reign of the Sukhothai's king Ramkhamhaeng.[46]

Local legends say Khun Laung Pho Ngouy is a descendant of Khun In (ขุนอิน), while the Ayutthaya Kingdom's 1st king, Uthong, is a descendant of Khun Kham Phong (ขุนคำผง) founder of Singhanavati's capital Yonok Nahaphan. Both Khun In and Khun Kham Phong are two of seven sons of Khun Borom,[53] a legendary progenitor of the Southwestern Tai-speaking peoples.[54] Simon de la Loubère's record, Du royaume de Siam, refers to the first Siamese king as a descendant of Chaiyasiri,[37][38][39][40] son of a legendary King Phrom of the Singhanavati clan.[55]

The early era of the Suphannabhum dynasty and its relations with other royal families in the lower Chao Phraya Valley from the 10th century to the formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom is shown below.

  King of Suphannabhum
  King of Phetchaburi
  King of Lavo's Ayodhya–Phetchaburi
  King of Ayutthaya–Suphannabhum
  King of Lavo's Lopburi
  King of Lavo's Ayodhya (formerly "Mueang Nong Son" or "Mueang Wat Derm")
  King of Ayutthaya
  King of Nakhon Si Thammarat
  King of Lavo's Ayodhya–Lopburi
  King of Lavo's Ayodhya–Suphannabhum
  King of Ayutthaya–Phetchaburi
Note
  1. ↑ Calculated from the text given in the chronicle: "สิ้น 97 ปีสวรรคต ศักราชได้ 336 ปี พระยาโคดมได้ครองราชสมบัติอยู่ ณ วัดเดิม 30 ปี"[26]: 30  which is transcribed as "...at the age of 97, he passed away in the year 336 of the Chula Sakarat. Phraya Kodom reigned in the Mueang Wat Derm for 30 years...".

List of rulers

Rulers Clan Reign Notes/Contemporary events
Romanized name Thai name
Pansa พรรษา Sikaraj 916 – early 10th.-c. At Suphan Buri seat
Early 10th.-c. – 1006 At Mueang Uthong seat
Chandra Devaraja[28]: 190–1  จันทรเทวราช Ramanwamsa Early 10th.-c.–940s? At Suphan Buri seat
Tambralinga's king Sujita from Lavo sacked Suphannabhum in the late 920s.[7]: 34, 70  Two Suphannabhum princes, Thamikaraj (later king of Haripuñjaya) and Chadachota (later king of Lavo), fled to Haripuñjaya,[28]: 191  the kingdom that was once ruled by their ancestor, King Pan.
Chola invaded Kamalanka and lower Menam Valley in 1030.
Ramapandita รามบัณฑิตย์ Ramanwamsa 1006–1046 At Mueang Uthong seat
Political Insurgency
Anga Indra องค์อินทร์ 1046–1081 At Mueang Uthong seat
Political Insurgency/ Bagan invaded lower Menam Basin and 1058.
Kar Tayy กาแต Pagan 1081 – early 12th.-c. At Mueang Uthong seat
Early 12th.-c. – 1121
  • At the Suphan Buri seat
  • Marked as the end of Dvaravati in the western valley
Vacant 1121–1163 Mueang Uthong has been abandoned since Kar Tayy moved the seat to Suphan Buri.
Soi La/Uthong I[lower-alpha 1] พระยาสร้อยหล้า Singhanavati 1163[32]: 61  – 1205
  • Xiān period begins
  • Son of Chaiyasiri/Chaisiri.
  • Younger brother of Phanom Thalesri, King of Phip Phli
  • No male heir left
Uthong II Lavo 1205–1253?
  • Son of Phanom Thalesri, King of Phip Phli
  • Also king of Lavo's Ayodhya (r.1205–1253)
  • Governed from Ayodhya
Vacant
Suphan Buri was a tributary state of the Sukhothai Kingdom from 1283–1298.[31]
Saenpom[48] ท้าวแสนปม Mid 13th century
  • Based on legend
  • Possibly prince of Sri Vijaya (Sambuka of Kamalanka)[74] who married princess of Trai Trueng (th).[48]
  • Some identified him with Khom Sabat Khlon Lamphong[75]
Phra Chao Uthong (Uthong III)[lower-alpha 2] พระเจ้าอู่ทอง Suphannaphum ?–1335?
  • Father(-in-law) of Khun Laung Pho Ngouy?[53]
  • Father? of the 1st Ayutthaya's king, Uthong. (r.1351–1369)[21]: 5 [45]
  • Possibly son of Saen Pom แสนปม (Sirichai Chiangsean), who married a princess of Trai Trueng (th), which made Suphannabhum a tributary state of the Sukhothai Kingdom during 1283–1298 via royal relations.
Phraya Uthong (Uthong IV)[lower-alpha 2] พระยาอู่ทอง Suphannaphum 1335?–1341 Son of the previous. No male heir.
Ramathibodi I (Uthong V) พระเจ้าอู่ทอง Lavo 1341[32]: 61 –1351 Son-in-law of Uthong III.[32]: 60–1 
Foundation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351)
Khun Laung Pho Ngouy (formerly Wattidet[6]: 274 ) ขุนหลวงพ่องั่ว/วัตติเดช Suphannaphum 1351–1370 Possible son(-in-law) of Uthong III. Later became the 3rd Ayutthaya's king, Borommarachathirat I. (r.1370–1388)
Sri Thephahurat (th)?[78]: 31–2  ศรีเทพาหูราช? Suphannaphum 1370–1374
  • Younger brother[6]: 274  or son[78]: 31–2  of Borommarachathirat I, and also Chao Nakhon In's father or relatives.[6]: 274 
  • Born into the Suphannaphum dynasty father and Sukhothai dynasty mother.[78]: 31–2 
Chao Nakhon In
Zhao Lu-qun Ying		 เจ้านครอินทร์ Suphannaphum 1374–1408
  • Also the crown prince of Xiānluó.[35][79][80]
  • Later became the 6th Ayutthaya's king, Intharacha. (r.1408–1424; offered crown)
Chao Ai Phraya เจ้าอ้ายพระยา Suphannaphum 1408–1424
  • Son of the previous, Chao Nakhon In, and older brother of the 7th Ayutthaya's king Borommarachathirat II.
Notes
  1. ↑ Based on legend.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 U Thong is a title used to refer to the kings or rulers of Mueang Uthong of Lavo-Suphanburi,[18]: 30  similar to the titles Phra Ruang (พระร่วง), the rulers of the Sukhothai Kingdom, and Phra Chao Sri Thammasokaraja (พระเจ้าศรีธรรมาโศกราช) of the Sri Thammasokaraja Kingdom.[42]: 39 

Art

  • U-Thong style sculpture, found in Wat Kai Tia (th), Si Prachan district, Suphan Buri province
    U-Thong style sculpture, found in Wat Kai Tia (th), Si Prachan district, Suphan Buri province
  • Main stupa at Wat Morakot, Mueang Suphan Buri, dates to the early 10th century.
    Main stupa at Wat Morakot, Mueang Suphan Buri, dates to the early 10th century.
  • Chedi at the Wat Kuti Song ruin, Mueang Suphan Buri.
    Chedi at the Wat Kuti Song ruin, Mueang Suphan Buri.
  • Chedi at the Wat Nong Neng ruin, Mueang Suphan Buri, dates to the early Ayuttha period.
    Chedi at the Wat Nong Neng ruin, Mueang Suphan Buri, dates to the early Ayuttha period.
  • Wat Pa Lelai Worawihan, dates before 1181 (King Katae's reign).
    Wat Pa Lelai Worawihan, dates before 1181 (King Katae's reign).
  • Ancient ruin in Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat (th), dates before 1408.
    Ancient ruin in Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat (th), dates before 1408.
  • Lan Na style (th) chedi in an ancient Wat Thale Thalai, Mueang district.
    Lan Na style (th) chedi in an ancient Wat Thale Thalai, Mueang district.
  • Dvaravati style sculpture, found in Wat Chi Suk Kasem (th), Mueang district.
    Dvaravati style sculpture, found in Wat Chi Suk Kasem (th), Mueang district.
  • Thailand's oldest Reclining Buddha, found in Wat Phra Non (th), Mueang district.
    Thailand's oldest Reclining Buddha, found in Wat Phra Non (th), Mueang district.

References

  1. ↑ Phrakhru Sophonweeranuwat; Phrakhru Wiboonjetiyanurak; Phrakhru Siribuddhisart; Phrakhru Baidika Sakdanal Netphra; Aekmongkol Phetchawong (2021). "การศึกษาวิเคราะห์เมืองอู่ทองในฐานะประวัติศาสตร์ในการเผยแผ่พระพุทธศาสนา" (in th). Journal of Buddhist Studies Vanam Dongrak 8 (1): 1–14. https://archive.org/details/an-analytical-study-of-u-thong-city-as-a-history-of-buddhist-propagation. 
  2. ↑ Luce, G.H. (1958). "The Early Syam in Burma's History". Journal of the Siam Society 46: 123–213. https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/1958/03/JSS_046_2b_Luce_EarlySyamInBurmasHistory.pdf. 
  3. ↑ Keatkhamjorn Meekanon (14 July 2024). "ตามพรลิงค์: สมาพันธรัฐที่โลกลืม ตอน ความสัมพันธ์กับรัฐไทย" (in th). Manager Daily. https://mgronline.com/daily/detail/9670000059885. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Yoneo Ishii (2004). "Exploring a New Approach to Early Thai History". Journal of the Siam Society 92: 37–42. https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2004/03/JSS_092_0d_Ishii_ExploringNewApproachToEarlyThaiHistory.pdf. 
  5. ↑ Phanomkorn Navasela (14 June 2018). "รายการ "อดีตในอนาคต" ตอนที่ ๑๓ อู่ทอง นครรัฐเมืองท่าสมัยฟูนัน" (in th). https://lek-prapai.org/home/view.php?id=5366. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Chantas Piantham (2017). "การสังเคราะห์องค์ความรู้ประวัติศาสตร์รัฐสุพรรณภูมิ จังหวัดสุพรรณบุรี ด้วยกระบวนการการมีส่วนร่วม" (in th). Journal of Nakhonratchasima College 11 (1): 272–290. http://journal.nmc.ac.th/th/admin/Journal/2560Vol11No1_724.pdf. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Thepthani, Phra Borihan (1953) (in th). Thai National Chronicles: the history of the nation since ancient times. S. Thammasamakkhi. p. 30. http://www.car.chula.ac.th/rarebook/book2/clra53_0235/mobile/index.html. Retrieved 5 November 2023. 
  8. ↑ Hoshino, T (2002). "Wen Dan and its neighbors: the central Mekong Valley in the seventh and eighth centuries.". Breaking New Ground in Lao History: Essays on the Seventh to Twentieth Centuries. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 25–72. https://archive.org/details/breakingnewgroun0000unse/page/25/mode/1up?view=theater. 
  9. ↑ Baker, Chris; Phongpaichit, Pasuk (2017). A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-19076-4. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-ayutthaya/52FC0674CC0532A8F1EDB01CC37E703B. 
  10. ↑ Kasetsiri, Charnvit. "Review Article: A New Tamman About Ayudhya – The Rise of Ayudhya: A History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries". https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/1979/03/JSS_067_2k_Vickery_ReviewArticleNewTamnanAboutAyutthaya.pdf. 
  11. ↑ Preecha Juntanamalaga (1988). "Thai or Siam?". Names a Journal of Onomastics 36 (1–2): 69–84. doi:10.1179/nam.1988.36.1-2.69. https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/view/1181/1180. 
  12. ↑ เข้าใจถิ่นเข้าใจเที่ยว สุพรรณบุรี, การท่องเที่ยวแหงประเทศไทย, 2547, p.7 ISBN 978-974-7177-14-5 or Appriciate the Locality, Travel Knowaladgableably, Suphan Buri Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2000, p.7 ISBN 978-974-7177-45-9; * Wārunī ʻŌsathārom. Mư̄ang Suphan bon sēnthāng kan̄plīanplǣng thāng prawattisāt Phutthasattawat thī 8 - ton Phutthasattawat thī 25 (History, development, and geography of the ancient city of Suphan Buri Province, Central Thailand, 8th-25th B.E.), Samnakphim Mahāwitthayālai Thammasāt, Krung Thēp, 2547.
  13. ↑ "รัฐสุพรรณภูมิ 'เจินหลี่ฟู่' อยู่เมืองสุพรรณ แม่น้ำท่าจีน" (in th). Matichon. 30 December 2022. https://www.matichonweekly.com/culture/article_637209. Retrieved 5 April 2025. 
  14. ↑ O. W. Wolters (1960). "Chên Li Fu: A State On The Gulf Of Siam at the Beginning of the 14th Century". The Journal of the Siam Society XLVIII. https://archive.org/details/chenlifu-wolters-The-Journal-of-the-Siam-Society-Vol.-XLVIII-Part-1-2-1960-pp1-35. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 ชินาทร กายสันเทียะ. "ย้อนอดีตเมืองสุพรรณบุรี ทวารวดีศรีสุพรรณภูมิ" (in th). Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University. https://www.stou.ac.th/study/sumrit/3-58(500)/page10-3-58(500).html. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "ประวัติศาสตร์จังหวัดสุพรรณบุรี" (in th). 2016. https://insiam.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/c_supanburi.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., ISBN 9786167339443
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 Fine Arts Department (in th). โบราณวิทยาเรื่องเมืองอู่ทอง. Bangkok. p. 232. https://www.finearts.go.th/storage/contents/2022/11/file/mcpd33eEWS9MvfPoHfCcII65qwbmCUAG4DUnaWRO.pdf. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Lawrence Palmer Briggs (1950). "The Khmer Empire and the Malay Peninsula". The Far Eastern Quarterly (Duke University Press) 9 (3): 256–305. doi:10.2307/2049556. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2049556. 
  20. ↑ "เมื่อ ลวปุระ-ลพบุรี ถูกพระเจ้าสุริยวรมันที่ 1 ยกทัพบุกทำลายจนมีสภาพเป็นป่า" (in th). 6 November 2023. https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_74633. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Warunee Osatharom (1997). "วิวัฒนาการเมืองสุพรรณ: การศึกษาการพัฒนาชุมชนเมืองจากพุทธศตวรรษที่ 6 - ต้นพุทธศตวรรษที่ 24" (in th). https://suvarnabhumi.psu.ac.th/tudb/files/research_file5400405382024-01-3100-44-09.pdf. 
  22. ↑ "เผยพบหลักฐานยืนยัน 'ดินแดนสุวรรณภูมิ' มีอยู่จริง" (in th). 5 August 2021. https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/social/953142. 
  23. ↑ Sujit Wongthes (2 February 2023). "สุวรรณภูมิ แผ่นดินใหญ่อุษาคเนย์ ชุมทางการค้า ไม่ใช่อาณาจักร" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_73265. 
  24. ↑ Paul Wheatley (October 1962). "The Golden Khersonese: studies in the historical geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (Kuala Lumpury: University of Malaya Press) 25 (3): 638–639. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00069822. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/paul-wheatley-the-golden-khersonese-studies-in-the-historical-geography-of-the-malay-peninsula-before-ad-1500-malayan-historical-studies-xxxiii-388-pp-front-kuala-lumpury-university-of-malaya-press-1961-distributed-by-oxford-university-press-45s/AEE2251B254FEDD6E1C9E0C0F2FBB0FE. 
  25. ↑ "อู่ทอง ที่รอการฟื้นคืน" (in th). Thai Rath. 16 August 2015. https://www.thairath.co.th/news/politic/518404. 
  26. ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 26.10 26.11 26.12 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.16 26.17 26.18 26.19 26.20 26.21 26.22 26.23 Northern Chronicle
  27. ↑ Dominic Goodall; Nicolas Revire (2021). "East and West - New Inscriptions from Funan, Zhenla and Dvāravatī". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 107: 257–321. doi:10.3406/befeo.2021.6376. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04142364/document. 
  28. ↑ 28.00 28.01 28.02 28.03 28.04 28.05 28.06 28.07 28.08 28.09 "Yonok Chronicle" (in th). 1936. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81_-_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84_-_%E0%B9%92%E0%B9%94%E0%B9%97%E0%B9%99.pdf. 
  29. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 34.
  30. ↑ Khemchart Thepchai (2014) (in th). โบราณคดีและประวัติศาสตร์เมืองสุพรรณบุรี. Bangkok: Cyber Roxy Agency Group. pp. 114. ISBN 978-9744180896. https://www.finearts.go.th/storage/contents/2023/10/file/ir7tca8si4U3gWsjplQMZsFLKTsT6R6F060BSHJx.pdf. Retrieved 15 December 2024. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Woraporn Promjairak (2018). "ย้อนรอยประวัติศาสตร์เมืองเก่าสุพรรณบุรีและพระเพทราชา ต้นราชวงศ์บ้านพลูหลวง" (in th). https://finearts.go.th/storage/contents/2024/09/file/Afoc4gIqVGYcPkNWSu5F2fFSA8xZsXZqqKPzTdlh.pdf. 
  32. ↑ 32.00 32.01 32.02 32.03 32.04 32.05 32.06 32.07 32.08 32.09 32.10 32.11 32.12 32.13 32.14 David K. Wyatt (2020). "Relics, Oaths and Politics in Thirteenth-Century Siam". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32 (1): 3–65. Archived from the original on 13 April 2025. https://archive.org/details/relics-oaths-and-politics-in-thirteenth-century-siam. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Thepthani 1953, p. 46-48.
  34. ↑ Tongjai Hutangkur (17 May 2024). "ปาไซ-สยามยุทธ์: "พ่อขุนแดนใต้" รบ "แขกสุมาตรา"" (in th). Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre. https://www.sac.or.th/portal/th/article/detail/608. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 7, Month 11, Day 16". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-7-month-11-day-16. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Pramint Kreuathong (1 August 2021). "กรุงศรีปฏิวัติ : ศึกเจ้าพี่น้อง 2 ราชวงศ์ วงศ์พระรามรบวงศ์พระอินทร์ ใครได้ราชบัลลังก์" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_25574. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 de La Loubère, Simon (1693). "CHAP. III. Concerning the History and Origine of the Siameses.". A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A48403.0001.001/1:4.3?rgn=div2;view=fulltext. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Thanothai Sukthit (September 26, 2020). "พงศาวดารกรุงศรีอยุธยา ส่งถวายพระเจ้าหลุยส์ที่ 14 อยู่ที่ไหน?" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_10253. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Smithies, Michael; Na Pombejra, Dhiravat (2002). "Instructions Given to the Siamese Envoys Sent to Portugal, 1684". Journal of the Siam Society 90. https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2002/03/JSS_090_0h_SmithiesDhiravat_InstrucutionsToSiameseEnvoysToPo.pdf. Retrieved April 8, 2021. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 de La Loubère, Simon (1967). "บทที่สาม: ว่าด้วยประวัติศาสตร์และต้นกำเนิดของชนชาวสยาม". จดหมายเหตุ ลา ลูแบร์ ราชอาณาจักรสยาม. pp. 41–42. 
  41. ↑ Walailak Songsiri (2025). "ในดินแดนแห่งเจนลีฟู นครรัฐที่ไม่ได้อยู่ในอำนาจทางการเมืองของพระเจ้าชัยวรมันที่ ๗ สู่ปัญหาทางประวัตศาสตร์ที่หาทางออกไม่เจอของสังคมไทย" (in th). https://archive.org/details/in-the-land-of-genlifu-a-city-state-that-was-not-under-the-political-power-of-ki. Retrieved 14 July 2025. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Chatchai Sukrakarn (October 2005). "พระเจ้าศรีธรรมาโศกราช" (in th). http://dspace.nstru.ac.th:8080/dspace/bitstream/123456789/337/1/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A.pdf. 
  43. ↑ Chand Chirayu Rajani (2020). "Background to the Sri Vijaya Story – Part IV". Archived from the original on 18 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200718122816/https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/1976/03/JSS_064_1l_ChandChirayuRajani_ReviewArticleBackgroundToSriVijayaIV.pdf. Retrieved 13 April 2025. 
  44. ↑ "ความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างราชวงศ์ศรีธรรมาโศกราชกับราชวงศ์ศรีมหาราชา (ศรีมหาราช)" (in th). Tungsong Municipality. https://www.tungsong.com/NakhonSri/tamnan_nakhon/5.pdf. 
  45. ↑ 45.00 45.01 45.02 45.03 45.04 45.05 45.06 45.07 45.08 45.09 45.10 45.11 45.12 45.13 45.14 45.15 45.16 45.17 45.18 45.19 สุจิตต์ วงษ์เทศ (21 April 2023). "พงศาวดารอโยธยาศรีรามเทพนคร ฉบับ มานิต วัลลิโภดม : อโยธยา เก่าแก่กว่าสุโขทัย ต้นกำเนิดอยุธยา ต้นแบบรัตนโกสินทร์" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_106970. 
  46. ↑ "อำเภอคลองลาน" (in th). http://www.tourinthai.com/sitetravel/travel-detail.php?travel_id=437. 
  47. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 "ท้าวแสนปม". องค์การบริหารส่วนตำบลไตรตรึงษ์ อ.เมือง จ.กำแพงเพชร. https://www.tritrueng.go.th/travel/detail/284. 
  48. ↑ Prangpanan Chuangpitak (5 October 2019). "ท้าวแสนปม : จากปมตำนานสู่ปมประวัติศาสตร์" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/culture/article_17610. Retrieved 5 August 2025. 
  49. ↑ "ร.๖ ทรงวินิจฉัย "ท้าวแสนปม" เรื่องปาฏิหาริย์เหลือเชื่อ ซ่อนความจริงที่เป็นไปได้ไว้!!!". ผู้จัดการออนไลน์. 3 February 2016. https://mgronline.com/onlinesection/detail/9590000012001. 
  50. ↑ คณะกรรมการจังหวัดพระนครศรีอยุธยา. (2513). อนุสรณ์สมเด็จพระเจ้าอู่ทองรามาธิบดีศรีสินทรบรมบพิตรพระเจ้าอยู่หัว. ที่ระลึกเนื่องในอภิลักขิตมงคลสมัยพระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัวภูมิพลอดุลยเดช เสด็จพระราชดำเนินทรงเปิดพระราชอนุสาวรีย์พระเจ้าอู่ทองรามาธิบดีที่ ๑ และอยุธยามหาปราสาท วันที่ ๒๔ มิถุนายน พุทธศักราช ๒๕๑๓. พระนคร: ศิริมิตรการพิมพ์. หน้า 116. "เนื้อความเป็นเหตุการณ์ที่เกิดขึ้นห่างจาก พ.ศ. ๑๘๘๕ มาเพียง ๓-๔ ปี มั่นใจว่าสมเด็จพระมหาจักรพัตราธิราชในที่นี้คือพระเจ้าบรมราชาสมเด็จพระรามาธิบดีผู้ราชบุตรก็คือ พระวรเชษฐ และได้เป็นกษัตริย์ ใน พ.ศ. ๑๘๘๗ เป็นแน่แท้"
  51. ↑ มานิต วัลลิโภดม, ตรี อมาตยกุล และไลออนส์, เอลิซาเบธ. (2510). ศิลปสมัยอู่ทอง ศิลปสมัยอยุธยา ศิลปสมัยรัตนโกสินทร์. พระนคร: กรมศิลปากร. หน้า 30.
  52. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "ราชวงศ์สุพรรณภูมิ" (in th). http://www.rungsimun.com/_m/article/content/content.php?aid=539958806. 
  53. ↑ Wyatt, David K. (2003). Thailand: A Short History. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08475-7. 
  54. ↑ Rak-Yom (2017-07-23). ""พระฝาง" ไชยปราการ ศรัทธายิ่งยุคพระเจ้าพรหมมหาราช" (in thai). Thairath. https://www.thairath.co.th/news/society/1012619. 
  55. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "ใคร?เจ้าชายรามราช" (in th). Thai Rath. 19 September 2010. https://www.thairath.co.th/news/politic/112090. Retrieved 19 December 2024. 
  56. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 46.
  57. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 31, 67.
  58. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Thepthani 1953, p. 67.
  59. ↑ เพ็ญสุภา สุขคตะ (12 September 2019). "ปริศนาโบราณคดี : 'สงครามสามนคร' (จบ) : การปรากฏนามของพระเจ้ากัมโพชแห่งกรุงละโว้?" (in th). มติชนสุดสัปดาห์. Matichon. https://www.matichonweekly.com/culture/article_464051. 
  60. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 42.
  61. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Thepthani 1953, p. 78.
  62. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 48,84,85.
  63. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 101.
  64. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 102.
  65. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Thepthani 1953, p. 49.
  66. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Thepthani 1953, p. 48.
  67. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Thepthani 1953, p. 103–4.
  68. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Phraya Pariyattithamthada (1968) (in th). Ayutthaya Testimonies. Rung Rueang Tham. https://finearts.go.th/storage/contents/file/NsiBYkTrppTZdZs0nPcUxO89poRuiq6N73eUZ74B.pdf. Retrieved 12 December 2024. 
  69. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 50.
  70. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 53.
  71. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 105.
  72. ↑ Thepthani, Phra Borihan (1952). "Thai National Chronicles: the history of the nation since ancient times" (in th). https://www.car.chula.ac.th/rarebook/book2/clra53_0231/mobile/index.html. 
  73. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Chuangphitak, Prangphanan (5 October 2019). "ท้าวแสนปม : จากปมตำนานสู่ปมประวัติศาสตร์" (in th). https://www.silpa-mag.com/culture/article_17610. Retrieved 12 November 2025. 
  74. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Singkhaselit, Katitham (2018) (in th). Phasa Khamen Mueang Surin. pp. 12–3. 
  75. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 52.
  76. ↑ Thepthani 1953, p. 55.
  77. ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 Rongroj Piromanukul (2018). "สมเด็จพระนครินทราธิราชในหมิงสือลู่" (in th). The Thammasat Journal of History: 14–57. https://so05.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/thammasat_history/article/download/115073/139722/. Retrieved 10 November 2024. 
  78. ↑ 79.0 79.1 "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 12, Month 10, Day 22". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-12-month-10-day-22. 
  79. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 22, Month 1, Day 16". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-22-month-1-day-16. 
  80. ↑ "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 10, Month 9, Day 1". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-10-month-9-day-1. 
  81. ↑ "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 28, Month 11, Day 24". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-28-month-11-day-24. 
  82. ↑ "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 28, Month 12, Day 29". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-28-month-12-day-29. 
  83. ↑ "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: Hong-wu Year 31, Month 1, Day 7". https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/hong-wu/year-31-month-1-day-7. 

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