Social:Goose step

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Short description: Marching step involving rigid, straight legs
This page is about the marching step. For other uses, see Goose step (disambiguation).
Russian Kremlin Guards goose-stepping at slow march at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Moscow.

The goose step is a special marching step which is performed during formal military parades and other ceremonies. While marching in parade formation, troops swing their legs in unison off the ground while keeping each leg rigidly straight.

The step originated in Prussian military drill in the mid-18th century and was called the Stechschritt (literally, "piercing step") or Stechmarsch. German military advisors spread the tradition to Russia in the 19th century, and the Soviets spread it around the world in the 20th century.

The term "goose step" originally referred to balance stepping, an obsolete formalized slow march.[1][2] The term is nowadays heavily associated with Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in many English-speaking countries.[3][4] As a result, the term has acquired a pejorative meaning in English-speaking countries.

History

Origin

German soldiers of the Weimar Republic's Reichswehr goosestepping in 1930.

The Stechschritt originated in the 18th century, like other march steps, as a method of keeping troops lined up properly as they advanced towards enemy lines. It was introduced into German military tradition by Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, a Field Marshal whose close attention to training transformed the Prussian infantry into one of the most formidable armed forces in Europe.[5] Other armies adopted different march steps that served the same purpose. The Russian Empire adopted the goose step during the 1796–1801 reign of Paul I.[6]

By the mid-19th century, the replacement of muskets with rifles greatly increased the accuracy of defensive fire. It was too hazardous to march forward into battle in precise formation, and the practice of marching towards enemy lines became obsolete. However, armed forces continued to drill recruits in marching techniques for the purposes of team building, military uniformity, and ceremonial functions. This was true in Prussia and the later German Empire, where the goose step became emblematic of military discipline and efficiency.[7][8]

Adoption outside Europe

The goose step became widespread in militaries around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. Military modernization and political influence carried the practice to Asia, Africa, and Latin America from its origins in Prussia and Russia.

The first wave of adoption took place in the late 19th century, as the Prussian army became greatly admired for its decisive victory in the Franco-Prussian War. This led many countries to modernize their military forces along the Prussian model. Goose stepping continued to gain ground even after Germany's defeat in World War I, as many nations still looked to the German model for military organization and training.

The Chilean Army was the first non-European country to adopt the goose step, importing many Prussian military traditions after the War of the Pacific. The practice of goose stepping then spread widely throughout Latin America from Chilean influence.[9]

Meanwhile, in Asia, the Beiyang New Army of Imperial China also adopted goose stepping together with the Prussian military model. After its dissolution, the National Revolutionary Army of the successive Republic of China continued the practice, also because that they were being trained by German advisers in the 1920s; after the Communists won the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army of People's Republic of China would follow suit and bring the practice into present day, owing to both tradition and its own Soviet influence.[10] They account for the largest single goose-stepping military today.

Cold War

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union trained the military forces of many of its client states with Soviet military drill and ceremonial practices. This led to the second great wave of goose step adoption, as it was introduced into many Third World countries in Asia and Africa. Meanwhile, the United States, United Kingdom, and France were, through efforts in their client republics and allies, preventing the use of the goose step in their armed services.[11] A divided Germany was also divided in their armies' foot drill; the East German Nationale Volksarmee kept the goose step (although it incoorperated some Soviet-style goose step elements), while the West German Bundeswehr only kept the Gleichschritt (quick march). The centuries-long German practice of goose-stepping finally ended in 1990, when the former was absorbed into the latter due to German Reunification.[12]

Usage

Ceremonial usage

Athletes goose-stepping with the Olympic flag at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.


In the most rigorous form of the goose step, often found in guard mounting ceremonies, the pace is done at a slow march, and the leg is nearly horizontal, and sometimes well beyond.[13] In a standard goose step, found in large military parades, the pace is done at a quick march and the leg is raised only to knee-height, or even to calf height. The lower goose step improves balance and unit cohesion at the tempo of a quick march. Flagbearers and honour guards will frequently march with a higher goose step than the mass of troops following.

Adopted countries

Cuban Honor Guards goose-stepping at the Mausoleum of José Martí, Santiago de Cuba.

The goose step is a feature of military ceremonies in dozens of countries, to varying extents. Some countries use the goose step as a general parade step performed by all troops, while others reserve it for honour guards and ceremonial units.

Americas

Europe

The National Guards Unit of Bulgaria goosestepping in the Bastille Day Military Parade 2007 in Paris.
  • Czech Republic: A moderate form of the goose step is performed by honour guards, with the foot raised only a few centimetres off the ground, these are the only units that use all the time. Other units of the military use it only during specific part of the ceremonial march when command "Look to the right" is given (generally in front of the platform where most senior commander or dignitary is present).
  • Poland: Performed at 112-116 steps per minute, raising the feet 10 centimetres off the ground[15]

Africa

  • Equatorial Guinea[16]
  • Madagascar[17]
  • Mozambique[18]
  • Rwanda: Uses a horizontal goose step for military parades. Rwanda received their military training in the goose-stepping country of Uganda.[19] The new type of goose step was performed during the 25th anniversary of the end of the Rwandan Genocide as the troops were trained by the Chinese PLA.[20]
  • Tanzania[21]

Middle East and Central Asia

  • Iran: Has used the goose step since the Imperial era, as the country was influenced first by the Russian Empire. In the 1920s, an increase of foreign trade and technical collaboration with Germany, with Reichswehr advisers present in the army. The Islamic Republic's armed forces have continued the practice.[22]
  • Kazakhstan: Use of the goose step is a direct result of Soviet military influence on the country when it was a republic of the Soviet Union. On February 3, 2016, President Nursultan Nazarbayev ordered that personnel of the Kazakh Armed Forces march at 95–105 steps per minute raising the forward leg 10–15 centimeters above the ground. This differs from their Russian counterparts who goose step at a rate of 120 steps per minute.[23][24]
  • Qatar: Adopted the goose step in 2017, after receiving training from Chinese drill instructors.[25]

East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia

A Chinese People's Liberation Army honor guard company goosesteps.
The Vietnam People's Navy honor guard company goose-stepping at ASEAN defense ministers meeting, 2010.
  • China: The Chinese term 正步 (zhèng bù) literally translates as "straight march" or "upright march". China adopted the goose step during the last days of the Qing dynasty, since the Beiyang New Army was modelled after the Prussian Army. After the 1911 revolution, the National Revolution Army of the Republic of China continued the practice due to tradition and also influence from German military advisors in the 1920s. After the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army of China again continued the practice due to both tradition and Soviet influences; it was seen publicly for the first time in 1951, when the second anniversary of the People's Republic of China was celebrated with a military parade in Beijing. The practice continued on both sides of the Taiwan Strait until 2003, when it was abandoned by the Republic of China Armed Forces.[26] The People's Liberation Army continues to use the goose step as its ceremonial march step. In 2021, the ROC defense ministry has once again resumed goose step training, in time for the 2024 centennial celebration of the Republic of China Military Academy.[27]
    • Hong Kong: Since the 1997 handover of sovereignty, some of Hong Kong's institutions who traditionally conduct the British-style drill, (Customs and Excise Department, etc.) have adopted the goose step.[28] With the enaction of the Hong Kong National Security Law, the other disciplined services have also adopted the practice for relevant ceremonial purposes, such as the National Security Education Day.[29] The Chinese central government has also requested uniformed youth groups in Hong Kong to adopt the goose step practice of the PLA in the mainland.[30] As of January 2022, the Hong Kong Police Force has adopted the goose step method as a means of showing patriotism.[31]
Indonesian Army marching on a parade. Difference of position can be seen between rifle-bearing soldiers and sword-bearing officers.
  • Indonesia: The goose step, known as langkah tegap or firm step, is performed during ceremonial occasions by the military,[32] police (although the foot does not generally leave the ground for more than a couple of inches unlike the military),[33] scouts,Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag See fusion with the British-style marching, the step is performed by swinging hands (at 90 degrees, or as high as the shoulder), either unarmed or at slope/shoulder arms position. If at port arms, both arms hold the weapon while performing it.

Evolution

Ethiopia adopted the goose step during the Derg military junta, which espoused socialist ideals and sought Soviet military aid.[34] The practice was dropped after the Derg were overthrown but was restored - with a modified British arms and parade drill - in 2023.


Italy introduced the goose step in 1938 under Benito Mussolini as the Passo Romano ("Roman Step"). The custom was never popular in Italy's armed forces except amongst the Blackshirts.[35] The goose step was dropped after World War II.


Switzerland is a majority German-speaking country that absorbed many German (and certain Austrian) military traditions alongside those of France and Italy as a reflection of the country's diversity. The Swiss Armed Forces abandoned the goose step in 1946, after the German defeat in World War II.[36]


The Malaysian Armed Forces (ATM), in 2018, once practiced the goose step as their new type of marching step combined with British style marching for ceremonial purpose, but was abandoned later after receiving several criticism from Malaysian citizens.[37]

The Republic of China (Taiwan) Armed Forces continued to use the goose step after the end of the Chinese Civil War. The 80-year tradition of goose-stepping was finally ended in 2003, during an independence-minded Democratic Progressive Party administration. In 2016, veterans organizations criticized the sloppy marching of military cadets and began holding their own goose-stepping parades, reviewed by Kuomintang politicians on two occasions.[38] In 2021, the Taiwanese department of defense resumed goose step training, in time for the 2024 centennial celebration of the Republic of China Military Academy.[27] In 2023, the goose step was once again publicly performed at the 99th Anniversary of the Republic of China Military Academy

Zimbabwean guerillas used the goose step during the Rhodesian Bush War of the 1970s. ZIPRA was trained and supplied by the Warsaw Pact, adopting East German uniforms and the goose step.[39][40] Meanwhile, ZANLA was supplied and trained by China in Maoist guerilla tactics. However, Zimbabwe ultimately attained black majority rule thanks to British influence. As a result, the unified Zimbabwean Army maintained a British march step.

High step

Example of high-stepping in a military parade, Belgrade.

The high step is similar to the goose step but instead of keeping the leg straight, the knee is bent at the top of the arc. It has been utilized by a number of military forces, often as an alternative to or replacement for the goose step.

  • Argentina: the high step is standard among the Argentine Navy and Air Force, and has been increasingly adopted by units of the Army and Naval Prefecture which had previously used the goose step.
  • Brazil
  • Czech Republic
  • East Timor
  • Hungary: the high step was used during the Interwar Period but abandoned in favor of the goose step after World War II.
  • Iran: the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps uses the high step while the rest of the military uses the goose step.
  • Japan: the Japanese military was modernized along German lines during the Meiji era and adopted the high step during this time.[8][41] The step was abandoned after the country's defeat in World War II. Some units, such as the Northern Army units of the JGSDF, firefighting units, and police forces, still maintain the practice. * Lebanon
  • Philippines: the high step been practiced by military juniors or cadets for training purpose only. It's not been used in military parade, honor guard or official ceremony however.
  • Portugal
  • Syria: the Syrian Armed Forces use the goose step, but Kurdish forces in the Syrian Civil War adopted the high step.
  • Somalia
  • Somaliland
  • Turkey
  • Uruguay
  • Yugoslavia: the high step was adopted by the Royal Yugoslav Army, abandoned in favor of the goose step by the Yugoslav People's Army after World War II, but reinstated when the country sought to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union as a result of the Tito–Stalin split. The former Yugoslav republics of Serbia, North Macedonia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (except for Croatia) continue to use it to this day.
Wehrmacht troops parading in Warsaw on 5 October 1939.

The goose step was ridiculed by Western Allied propaganda in the World Wars as a symbol of blind obedience and senseless attachment to military form. Prior to U.S. entry into World War I, American military observers had remarked favorably on the goose step as a means of building unit cohesion.[7][8] However, its association with Nazi Germany in World War II proved fatal to the goose step's reputation in English-speaking countries. It was condemned in George Orwell's essay The Lion and the Unicorn, and proved an easy target for parody in many editorial cartoons and Hollywood films.

Orwell commented in "England Your England" (1941) that the goose step was used only in countries where the population was too scared to laugh at their military.

Cultural references

  • In "The Germans", an episode of the British sitcom Fawlty Towers first broadcast in 1975, the main character Basil Fawlty imitates the goose step in front of some German hotel guests.
  • In Disney's The Lion King (1994), the hyenas marching through Scar's Be Prepared song perform the goose step to symbolize the dictatorship that will be imposed after Mufasa is overthrown.[42]
  • In a 1999 television adaptation of Orwell's Animal Farm, the goose step is performed by a flock of geese, singing the praises of their porcine leader Napoleon in a propaganda film.
  • In Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Henry Jones, Sr., when asked about the contents of a diary, responds with "It tells me that goose-stepping morons like yourself should try reading books instead of burning them!"

In colloquial English, the phrase goose-stepping has connotations of blind obedience and submission. The term does not carry this negative connotation in countries that currently use the goose step, though this is sometimes the actual case. This can result in mistaken interpretations due to cultural differences:

  • In Spartacus, a ballet by Aram Khachaturian, the Roman soldiers goose-step in most of their scenes. English-speaking reviewers sometimes conclude erroneously that the choreography must be intending to link the Roman Empire with the tyranny of Nazi Germany. However, goose-stepping in Russia carries no such connotation, and reflects only military discipline. Goose-stepping can be found in a number of Russian ballets in which it is not associated with the villains.[43]

The older English meaning of goose-step[44] is sometimes found in a humorous context:

  • In The Tale of Tom Kitten, a children's book by Beatrix Potter, the three puddle-ducks are described as "marching one behind the other and doing the goose step".[45]

See also

  • Lockstep marching
  • Military step

References

  1. ↑ MacDonald, J. H. A. (1901). "Infantry in a New Century". Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 29: 438. https://books.google.com/books?id=Wuk1AQAAMAAJ&dq=%22goosestep%22&pg=PA440. Retrieved 19 May 2020. 
  2. ↑ Blenkinsop, Adam (1852). Memoirs of Dr. Blenkinsop. 1. London: Richard Bentley. p. 166. ISBN 978-1179919409. https://books.google.com/books?id=y6E_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA166. 
  3. ↑ "World Wide Words: Goose-step". http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-goo3.htm. 
  4. ↑ "goose step - Search Online Etymology Dictionary". http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=goose+step. 
  5. ↑ "The Navy and Army Illustrated". The Navy and Army Illustrated 17: 430. 6 February 1904. "The hero of the comedy is, it will be remembered, none other than Prince Leopold of Dessau, friend of Frederick the Great, hero of the Prussian Army, and inventor of the iron ramrod and of the "goose-step."". 
  6. ↑ Haythornthwaite, Philip J. (1987). The Russian Army of the Napoleonic Wars: Infantry, 1799-1814. Osprey Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-0850457377. https://archive.org/details/russianarmyofnap00phil/page/12. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ruhl, Arthur (1916). Antwerp to Gallipoli: A Year of War on Many Fronts - and Behind Them. Scribner. pp. 115–116. https://archive.org/details/antwerptogallipo00ruhl. "You have heard, let us say, of the German parade step, sometimes laughed at as the "goose step" in England and at home. I was lunching the other day with an American military observer, and he spoke of the parade step and the effect it had on him. "Did you ever see it?" he demanded. "Have you any idea of the moral effect of that step? You see those men marching by, every muscle in their bodies taut and tingling as steel wire, every eye on the Emperor, and when they bring those feet down--bing! bang!-- the physical fitness it stands for, the unity, determination--why, it's the whole German idea--nothing can stop them!"" 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Walcott, Arthur S. (January 1916). "The Japanese Coronation Military Review". The Seventh Regiment Gazette 30 (4): 66. https://books.google.com/books?id=HFVGAQAAMAAJ. "The parade step in Japan is practically the German goose-step, and the arms are brought to horizontal position in front at each swing. This may, to the superficial observer, seem absurd, but it conveys a strong sense of momentum and force, and I fully believe it has a sort of hypnotic effect on the soldiers, making them feel stronger and more consequential. It is by no manner of means to be laughed at, that I am certain of.". 
  9. ↑ Sater, William F.; Herwig, Holger H. (1999). The Grand Illusion: The Prussianization of the Chilean Army. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803223936. 
  10. ↑ Lai, Benjamin. (2012). The Chinese People's Liberation Army since 1949. Hook, Adam.. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-78200-320-5. OCLC 821649306. 
  11. ↑ The American experience in World War II. London: Routledge. 2003. p. 64. ISBN 9780415940368. "After referring to earlier Russian and German military missions in China, Wedemeyer announced that now the Chinese would "unlearn to goosestep."" 
  12. ↑ Fulbrook, Mary (2014). A History of Germany 1918-2014: The Divided Nation (4 ed.). Wiley. p. 213. ISBN 9781118776131. "Curiously, the East German Army retained the old Prussian military goose step until December 1989." 
  13. ↑ Ewen MacAskill (16 January 2017). "Trump 'reckless' on Nato, says defence committee chairman". https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/16/trump-reckless-on-nato-says-defence-committee-chairman#img-1.  Article has a photograph of soldiers goose-stepping with legs 45° above the horizontal.
  14. ↑ Desfile Militar en conmemoración del Día de la Independencia Nacional. Presidencia de la República - Colombia. 20 July 2015.
  15. ↑ (in pl) Regulamin musztry Sił Zbrojnych Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Warsaw: Ministry of National Defence: General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces, 1994, Szt. Gen. 1427/94, https://bdsp.wp.mil.pl/u/musztra.pdf 
  16. ↑ "Large military and popular parade for Independence Day". http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5777&forcedfoto=1413153727.jpg. 
  17. ↑ "Madagascar military parade marks national day". Xinhuanet. 27 June 2014. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/photo/2014-06/27/c_133441474.htm. 
  18. ↑ "Mozambique celebrates 35th anniversary of independence". Xinhuanet. 26 June 2010. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/photo/2010-06/26/c_13370404_2.htm. 
  19. ↑ Parker, Allison (2002). Hidden in Plain View: Refugees Living Without Protection in Nairobi and Kampala. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. p. 89. ISBN 9781564322814. "The RPF had very close ties with the Ugandan government as many of its leaders came from the exiled Tutsi community in Uganda and had become an important force within Museveni's rebel force ... As a result, many members of the elite in Rwanda look back on a period of military training in Uganda, and retain close links with the Ugandan military." 
  20. ↑ "Rwandan troops trained by Chinese military mark 25th anniversary of liberation | South China Morning Post". Scmp.com. 7 July 2019. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3017597/rwandan-troops-trained-chinese-military-mark-25th-anniversary. 
  21. ↑ Kissinger, Henry (2012). Years of Renewal. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780857207203. "The parade reflected some of the training the Tanzanian army had received in Communist East Germany. Its precision was somewhat handicapped, however. The army's instruction in goose-stepping had obviously taken place when the soldiers wore Prussian-style boots." 
  22. ↑ C. Michael Forsyth (2018-02-25). "Goose Step | Best and Worst of Horror". Forsythstories.com. https://forsythstories.com/tag/goose-step/. 
  23. ↑ "Kazakhstan's Army Marching Away From Soviet Legacy?". Eurasianet. 2016-02-05. https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-army-marching-away-from-soviet-legacy. 
  24. ↑ "О внесении изменений в Указ Президента Республики Казахстан от 5 июля 2007 года № 364 "Об утверждении общевоинских уставов Вооруженных Сил, других войск и воинских формирований Республики Казахстан" — Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан". Akorda.kz. http://www.akorda.kz/ru/legal_acts/o-vnesenii-izmenenii-v-ukaz-prezidenta-respubliki-kazahstan-ot-5-iyulya-2007-goda-364-ob-utverzhdenii-obshchevoinskih-ustavov-vooruzhennyh-s-2. 
  25. ↑ Sun, Wenyu (December 20, 2017). "PLA's goose-stepping highlight of Qatari National Day military parade". People's Daily Online. http://en.people.cn/n3/2017/1220/c90000-9306770.html. 
  26. ↑ 林弘展 (2016-02-24). "揭密：國軍「踢正步」是怎麼消失的？". TVBS新聞網. https://news.tvbs.com.tw/ttalk/detail/life/3032. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Demobilize antiquated goose step marching". Taipei Times. https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2021/09/08/2003763990. 
  28. ↑ "海關結業會操改用鵝步娛賓". 東方日報. 2013-05-07. http://www.orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20130507/00176_003.html. 
  29. ↑ "Hong Kong Police marching in the Chinese military style". https://www.scmp.com/video/hong-kong/3127183/hong-kong-police-marching-chinese-military-style. 
  30. ↑ "China asks Hong Kong to goose-step into line". Financial Times. 11 February 2018. https://www.todayonline.com/world/china-asks-hong-kong-goose-step-line. 
  31. ↑ "Hong Kong police switch to Chinese-style goose-stepping 'to show patriotism'". 14 January 2022. https://hongkongfp.com/2022/01/14/hong-kong-police-switch-to-chinese-style-goose-stepping-to-show-patriotism/. 
  32. ↑ Indonesian Marines march past. Slamet Wahyudi. 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 2020-09-19.
  33. ↑ Indonesian Police march past. S2 Project. 10 July 2017. Archived from the original on 2021-12-14.
  34. ↑ Cuban president Fidel Castro and Ethiopian leader Mariam watch military parade. AP Archive. Archived from the original on 2021-12-14.
  35. ↑ "Foreign News: Roman Step". 7 February 1938. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789426,00.html. 
  36. ↑ "Swiss Army Drops Goosestep," Associated Press, February 28, 1946.
  37. ↑ "Army chief shoots down 'goose steps' criticism". The Star. 27 July 2018. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/27/army-chief-shoots-down-goose-steps-criticism. 
  38. ↑ Huang, Sunrise; Liu, Claudia; Su, Justin; Hsu, Elizabeth (2016-06-12). "Veterans reintroduce goose step in Taipei parade". Focus Taiwan. http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201606120005.aspx. 
  39. ↑ Petter-Bowyer, Peter J.H. Winds of destruction: the autobiography of a Rhodesian combat pilot. Johannesburg: 30° South Publishers, 2005. p.382.
  40. ↑ Siff, Peter. Cry Zimbabwe: Independence -- Twenty Years on. Galago, 2000. p. 97.
  41. ↑ Military Parade In Tokyo (1930-1939). British Pathé. Archived from the original on 2021-12-14.
  42. ↑ "The Lion King: Be Prepared | Sing-A-Long | Disney". 10 September 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPUe7O3ODHQ. 
  43. ↑ "Bolshoi in DC -- Nutcracker". Ballet Alert!. http://ballettalk.invisionzone.com/index.php?/topic/8417-bolshoi-in-dc-nutcracker/. 
  44. ↑ Quinion, Michael (April 23, 2011). "World Wide Words: Goose-step". Michael Quinion. https://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-goo3.htm. "However, the English term wasn’t at first applied to the stiff-legged parade march but to a form of drill in which recruits were taught to stand alternately on one leg and swing the other back and forwards, keeping the knee straight." 
  45. ↑ Potter, Beatrix (September 1907). The Tale of Tom Kitten. Frederick Warne & Co.. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_Tom_Kitten#33. Retrieved January 3, 2020. "While they were in difficulties, there was a pit pat paddle pat! and the three Puddle-Ducks came along the hard high road, marching one behind the other and doing the goose step—pit pat paddle pat! pit pat waddle pat!" 

Further reading



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