Social:Proto-Albanian language

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Short description: Reconstructed ancestor of the Albanian languages
Proto-Albanian
Reconstruction ofAlbanian (Albanian dialects)
RegionBalkan Peninsula
Erac. 1000 BCE[1] – 600 CE[2]
Reconstructed
ancestor
Proto-Indo-European
NotesThe only survivor of the Albanoid languages of the Paleo-Balkan group


Proto-Albanian is the ancestral reconstructed language of Albanian, before the Gheg–Tosk dialectal split. Albanian and other Paleo-Balkan languages had their formative core in the Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region.[3][4] Whether descendants or sister languages of what was called Illyrian by classical sources, Albanian and Messapic, on the basis of shared features and innovations, are grouped together in a common branch in the current phylogenetic classification of the Indo-European language family.[5] The Indo-European subfamily that gave rise to Albanian is called 'Albanoid'[6] in reference to a specific ethnolinguistically pertinent and historically compact language group.[7]

Proto-Albanian is reconstructed by way of the comparative method between the Tosk and Gheg dialects, as well as the treatment of loanwords, which can be traced back as early as the first contacts with Ancient Greek, but the most important of which are those from Latin (dated by De Vaan to the period 167 BCE to 400 CE) and from Slavic (dated from 600 CE onward).[8] The evidence from loanwords allows linguists to construct in great detail the shape of native words at the points of major influxes of loans from well-attested languages.[9]

Proto-Albanian is broken up into different stages which are usually delimited by the onset of contact with different well-attested languages.[8] Its earliest stages are dated to the early Roman Empire, just before the period of intense Latin-Albanian contact, while in its late stages it experienced contact with Slavic languages.[10][11][12] The Tosk-Gheg split is known to predate Slavic contact circa 600 CE, as evidenced by the fact that Latin and ancient Greek loanwords are treated like native words with regard to taxonomical differences between Gheg and Tosk, but the same is not true of Slavic loans.[13][14][15]

History

Albanian and other Paleo-Balkan languages had their formative core in the Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region.[3][4]

Indo-European diversification

Indo-European phylogenetic tree where the IE dialect that gave rise to Albanian splits from Post-Tocharian Indo-European, that is the residual Indo-European unity ("Core Indo-European") which remained after Tocharian's splitting from Post-Anatolian Indo-European (by Chang et al. 2015).[16] This tree model is also supported by Hyllested & Joseph 2022, with the difference that they consider the splitting of Armenian from Graeco-Albanian instead of Albanian from Graeco-Armenian.[17]

Although research is ongoing, in current phylogenetic tree models of the Indo-European language family, the IE dialect that gave rise to Albanian splits from "Post-Tocharian Indo-European", that is the residual Indo-European unity ("Core Indo-European") which remained after Tocharian's splitting from "Post-Anatolian Indo-European".[17][18][16] The transition between the Basal IE and Core IE speech communities appears to have been marked by an economic shift from a mainly non-agricultural economy to a mixed agro-pastoral economy. The lack of evidence for agricultural practices in early, eastern Yamnaya of the Don-Volga steppe does not offer a perfect archaeological proxy for the Core IE language community, rather western Yamnaya groups around or to the west of the Dnieper River better reflect that archaeological proxy.[19]

Recent IE phylogenetic studies group Albanian in the same IE branch with Greek and Armenian, labelled '(Palaeo-)Balkanic Indo-European'.[17][20][21][16] Yamnaya steppe pastoralists apparently migrated into the Balkans about 3000 to 2500 BCE, and they soon admixed with the local populations, which resulted in a tapestry of various ancestry from which speakers of the Albanian and other Paleo-Balkan languages emerged.[4] Innovative creations of agricultural terms shared only between Albanian and Greek were formed from non-agricultural PIE roots through semantic changes to adapt them for agriculture. Since they are limited only to Albanian and Greek, they can be traced back with certainty only to their last common IE ancestor, and not projected back into Proto-Indo-European.[22] Shortly after they had diverged from one another, Pre-Albanian, Pre-Greek, and Pre-Armenian undoubtedly also underwent a longer period of contact, as shown by common correspondences that are irregular for other IE languages. Furthermore, intense Greek–Albanian contacts certainly occurred thereafter.[21]

Proto-Albanoid dialect area

The Indo-European dialect or subfamily that gave rise to Albanian is referred to as 'Proto-Albanoid',[note 1] from which also Messapic and Pre-Romanian would have emerged.[25][note 2] Based on available historical-linguistic evidence, scholars have proposed as an early location of the Proto-Albanoid dialect the region of the Carpathians–northern Balkans.[27] It would have occupied a central position between the other IE dialects, constituting a link between an older southeastern community of Pre-Greek and Pre-Armenian, and a stronger northwestern community that was closer to Pre-Slavic and Pre-Baltic than to the more westerly community of Pre-Germanic, Pre-Celtic, and Pre-Italic.[28] Probably around 1000 BCE the Proto-Albanoid area of speech would have already formed a band in the central-western Balkans, roughly from the Carpathians to northern Albania, encompassing the historical regions of Dardania, Illyria proper, Paeonia, Upper Moesia, western Dacia and western Thrace.[29] Like other parts of Southeast Europe, this whole linguistic area would have not constituted a solid homogeneous settlement, however, a contiguous and compact set of traces can certainly be found in it.[30] Through the Iapygian migrations in southeast Italy, an Albanoid dialect would have crossed the Adriatic Sea and spread throughout Apulia, where Messapic emerged.[31]

Proto-Albanian language

Albanian can be considered a completely formed independent IE language since at least the first millennium BCE, and this stage of the proto-language is labelled 'Early Proto-Albanian'.[1] Early loanwords from Northwest Doric since the 7th century BCE and from Ancient Macedonian during the 5th-4th centuries BCE which were treated with characteristic Albanian features, classical place names exclusively observing Albanian accent and phonetic rules, as well as several items preserved in the lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria and other ancient glossaries, provide evidence for the presence of Albanoid speech in the Balkans during classical antiquity,[32][33][34] spoken in the central-western part of the region, to the north and west of the Ancient Greeks.[32][33] Albanian in antiquity is often thought to have been an Illyrian language for obvious geographic and historical reasons,[35][36][37][38][39][40] or otherwise an unmentioned Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic.[41][42][43][44]

History of study

Vladimir Orel is one of the main modern international linguists to have dealt with the passage from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Albanian to Modern Albanian. According to Orel, the study of Proto-Albanian syntax remains in its infancy so there are some limitations to the work. However, there have been developments in the understanding of the historical development of phonetics and vocabulary.[45] Other major work has been done by Eqrem Çabej and Shaban Demiraj as well as by major scholars in the field of Romanian historical linguistics as it relates to Albanian (see Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship) as well as other Balkan linguists. A large amount of work done on Proto-Albanian is published in German, rather than English.

Nomenclature of periodization of Proto-Albanian

Vladimir Orel distinguishes the following periods of Proto-Albanian: 1) "Early Proto-Albanian" (EPA): spoken before the 1st century CE, when Albanian had not yet acquired extensive influence via language contact from Latin/Proto-Romance. 2) "Late Proto-Albanian" (LPA): after extensive Latin contact, with the end of the period seeing contacts between ancient Slavic idioms still close to the Proto-Slavic language, in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. During this period the structure of Proto-Albanian was "shattered" by major changes.[10]

Ranko Matasović distinguishes the following periods of Proto-Albanian: 1) "Pre-Proto-Albanian": essentially equivalent to Vladimir Orel's "Early Proto-Albanian", except that the newer paradigm of Matasović dates Latin/Albanian contact a century earlier, and thus it ends for Matasović in the 1st century BCE rather than the 1st century CE.[46] After this period ends, Latin contact begins to transform the language. 2) "Early Proto-Albanian": corresponds to the earlier phases of what is for Orel "Late Proto-Albanian". For Matasović, the period spans the 1st century BCE to the 6th century CE, halting before contact with Slavic idioms begins.[46] 3) "Late Proto-Albanian": includes the last two centuries of LPA for Orel, plus most of the unattested period of "Old Albanian", halting before Turkish influence begins.[46] In this paradigm, Gheg and Tosk split from Early Proto-Albanian, not Late Proto-Albanian, consistent with our knowledge that the split preceded Slavic contact. 4) "Early Albanian": corresponds to the late, Ottoman, phase of Old Albanian in the traditional paradigm, ending in 1800, at which point it transitions to Modern Albanian.[46]

Demiraj, like Matasović and unlike Orel, observes the 5th/6th centuries as a boundary between stages, but instead places the "emergence of Albanian" from its parent after this point, rather than the 14th.[12]

In an Albanian chapter penned by Michiel de Vaan within Klein, Joseph and Fritz' 2018 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics,[8] Demiraj's periods are adhered to. Orel's "Later Proto-Albanian", which is for them also definitively placed before Slavic contact, is referred to as simply "Proto-Albanian" (PAlb) or, in German, "Uralbanisch", reflecting the terminology of earlier writing in German.[47][48][49] What is for Orel "Early Proto-Albanian" (EPA), dated definitively before the onset of Latin contact, is for De Vaan, "Pre-Proto-Albanian" (PPAlb); in German, this stage is called "Voruralbanisch" or "Frühuralbanisch".[8] De Vaan also discusses the possibility of breaking "Pre-Proto-Albanian" into two stages: one before the first Greek loanwords, and one that is after the first Greek loanwords, but before contact with Latin.[8]

This page at present is using the paradigm of Orel.

Phonology

Extensive recent studies on Proto-Albanian phonology have been published by Huld (1984), Beekes (1995), Shaban Demiraj (1996), Bardhyl Demiraj (1997), Orel (2000), Hock (2005), Matzinger (2006), Vermeer (2008), Schumacher (2013), and De Vaan (2018).[8]

At present, this page follows Orel's paradigm for periods of Proto-Albanian, and presents the relationship between the synchronic phonologies of both "EPA" and "LPA" with diachronic relationships to each other and to ancestral Indo-European forms as well as descendant Albanian forms.

Stress

In Early Proto-Albanian, stress was paradigmatic, and behaved according to morphological class,[50] with a base on the first syllable.[11] In different paradigms, the stress pattern was varyingly barytonic, oxytonic, and mobile.[50] Unstressed vowels lost one mora—long vowels were shortened, already short vowels were often deleted. In Later Proto-Albanian, however, a new system of unstressed vowel reduction emerged where *a reduced to *ë while all others were simply deleted (except for post-tonic inlaut vowels, which became *ë).[50] Orel gives the following examples:

  • EPA *dáusas "ram" (sg) > *dauš > ... > modern dash
  • EPA *dáusai "rams" (pl) > *dauši > ... > modern desh
  • EPA *dwáigā "branch" (sg) > *déga > ... > modern degë
  • EPA *dwáigāi "branches" (pl) > *dégai > ... > modern degë

Vowels

Simple vowels in EPA[51]
Front Central Back
High *i • *iː *u • *uː
Mid *e • *eː • *oː
Low *a • *aː
Diphthongs in EPA[51]
Nucleus -i -u
*e *ei *eu
*a *ai *au

Early Proto-Albanian possessed four distinctive short vowels: *a, *e, *i and *u. Proto-Indo-European *o had merged into *a by the Early Proto-Albanian stage. A five-way distinction was maintained for long vowels: *aː, *eː, *iː, *oː and *uː. Early Proto-Albanian also had four diphthongs: *ei, *ai, *eu and *au.

Early Proto-Albanian's vowel inventory began to change as a result of Latin contact. Initially Albanian was resistant to the restoration of short *o as a separate phoneme, with Latin unstressed *o being replaced by *a, and stressed Latin *o being replaced by *u. However, in later loans, Latin *o is maintained in Albanian as *o. Additionally, some Latin loans with short *u saw Latin *u replaced by *o, as well as *ə specifically in unstressed positions before sonorants. In two cases, Orel argues that Latin short /u/ was lengthened in Albanian to /u:/, ultimately to render /y/. On the other hand, whatever effect Ancient Greek loanwords had at their time of absorption is unclear, but diachronically the vowels always agree with regular internal Albanian developments.

LPA simple vowels
Front Back
High *i *u •
Mid (*e)[note 3] (*o)[note 4]
Low *a • *å[52]
(Earlier) LPA diphthongs
-u -i -e
u- *ui *ue
i- *ie
e- *eu *ei
a- *au *ai

Late Proto-Albanian

Late Proto-Albanian exhibited *a, *i and *u throughout its development as distinctive short vowels. *o was restored to the phonemic inventory as a result of loanwords where it was increasingly maintained instead of replaced. Although *e was eliminated by breaking to *ie (which would render je and ja), it was restored by the leveling of /ai/ to /e/ and other phenomena that replaced /a/, /ie/, and /ue/ with /e/. The only long vowel preserved in its original form was *iː. *o: was replaced by *ue, *eː was merged into *aː and both were rounded and eventually raised to *o, while *uː merged with the diphthong *ui, ultimately rendering *y. By Late Proto-Albanian, all the original Indo-European diphthongs had now leveled, but new diphthongs were absorbed in loans, and were also innovated by breaking phenomena: *ie, *ue and *ui. *ai in Latin words with AE shared the fate of inherited Early Proto-Albanian *ai, becoming *e, while Latin AU similarly shared the fate of inherited *au and became *a.

Phonemically nasal vowels emerged in Late Proto-Albanian.[53] First, all vowels standing before nasal consonants were nasalized. The following nasal consonant was then lost in certain morphological contexts, while the vowel remained nasalized, resulting in the emergence of LPA phonemes denoted *â, *ê, *î, and *û.[53] Except in certain Gheg varieties, *ê merged into *â.[53] The traditional view presented by Orel[53] and Desnickaja[54] is that distinctive nasalization was lost by Tosk but retained by Gheg and that this is a taxonomical difference between the two.[53] However this has now been challenged,[54] after Sheper and Gjinari discovered Lab dialects (Lab is a subdialect of Tosk) in the Kurvelesh region that still had distinctive nasal vowels,[54] and Totoni likewise found that the Lab speech of Borsh also still has nasal vowel phonemes.[55] This means that, instead of the traditional view, it is possible that denasalization happened in most Tosk dialects only after the split from Gheg.[54]

Slavic *uː appears to still have been back and round when it was loaned into Albanian, but it is after the diphthongization and resulting fronting of the original Early Proto-Albanian *uː to *y was no longer absorbing new *uː segments, as they are, with only three exceptions, reflected as *u. Slavic *o had already become *a in the Slavic languages that contacted Albanian by the time of contact, and was loaned as *a for the most part; as is reflected also in other non-Slavic languages absorbing these words. After /v/, this *a became *o again in two attested cases: kos ("yogurt", from Proto-Slavic *kvasъ) and vorbë ("clay pot").

It was at the end of the LPA period that length became no longer distinctive in Albanian,[56] although many Gheg and some Lab dialects preserved it and/or re-innovated it. Furthermore, by Old Albanian, all diphthongs had been lost: those ending in -i were all leveled, the -u was lost in those ending in -u, and those ending in -e were converted to glide + vowel sequences; further changes including the frequent effacement of the former first element or otherwise its hardening into an occlusive (typically /v/ for former u-, and gj /ɟ/ for former i-) rendering the former presence of a diphthong rather opaque in many reflexes.

Vowels of late LPA transitioning to Old Albanian
Front Central Back
High *i • *y *u
MId *e *ë *o
Low *a

Diachronic development

This table differentiates short vowels form long vowels with the IPA symbol <ː> being applied to the long vowels.

Specifically contextualized reflex results are placed in parentheses.

Proto-Indo-European developments before Proto-Albanian Early Proto-Albanian Late Proto-Albanian Tosk Albanian Gheg Albanian Example
Latin short /a/ merges with EPA /a/ /a/[45] /a/ /a/[45] /a/[45] PIE *kap- "to seize" > EPA *kapa > kap "to grasp";

Latin APTUM > Alb aftë "capable";

PIE *n̩bʰ(u)lo- > EPA *abula > Alb avull "steam, vapor";[57]

PIE *septm̩ > EPA *septati > Alb shtatë "seven"[57]

*a Proto-Indo-European *n̩ and *m̩ merge with result of *a[57]
*a > /e/ under umlaut and subsequent analogy[58] /e/ /e/ EPA *albr̩ > elb "barley";

Latin GALBINUS "yellow" > Alb gjelbër "green";

PIE *u̯īḱm̩tī > EPA *wīdžatī > Alb zet "twenty";[57]

PIE *n̩- > EPA *a- > Alb e- (privative prefix)[57]

>/ɑ̃/ before nasals /ə/ <ë> /ɑ̃/ <â, an> EPA *ksanda > Alb hënë ("moon", Gheg: hanë);

Latin CANTICUM > Alb këngë "song"

/ə/ deleted after a stressed syllable[59] IE *bʰolətom > EPA *baltaː > Alb baltë "swamp"
> /e/ after absorption of following laryngeal H_e /e/ /ie/
(> /e/ before *ts, *dz, *nd, *nt, *mb) 		/ie/
/je/
/ja/ 		/ie/
/je/
/ja/ 		IE *dheHi "to suck"> dheːi > EPA dela > Alb djalë "boy"
> /o/ elsewhere /a/[60] /a/ /a/ /a/ IE *apo "away", "off" > EPA *apa > Alb pa "without"
>/ɑ̃/ before nasals /ə/ <ë> /ɑ̃/ <â, an> IE *sont-s "being" > EPA *san(s) > Alb gjë "thing" (Gheg: gjâ sen/send "thing" or sene/sende "things")
/o/ /o/
(/e/ under umlaut and subsequent analogy[58]) /e/ /e/ IE *ǵʰorios > EPA *darja > Alb derr "pig";

IE *kʷəp- "smoke"(?) > EPA *kapna > Alb kem "incense"(Gheg: kall "burn")

> /ɑ̃/ before nasal /ə/ /ɑ̃/ IE *sont-s "being" > EPA *san(s) > Alb gjë
/e/ /e/ /e/[61] IE *lent- > EPA *lenta: > Alb lëndë "timber" (Gheg: landë)
/ie/
/ie/ /ie/ IE *bʰer- "to bring, carry" > EPA *berja > Alb bie "to bring"
/je/ /je/ IE *smeḱu > EPA smekraː > Alb mjekër "beard"
je > e after affricates, palatals, and liquids je > e after affricates, palatals, and liquids Alb fle "to sleep"
/ja/ /ja/ IE *esmi > EPA *esmi > Alb jam;


ja > a after affricates, palatals and liquids ja > a after affricates, palatals and liquids IE *seḱs + ti > EPA *seksti > Alb gjashtë "six"
/ie/ > /e/ before *ts, *dz, *nd, *nt, *mb /e/ /e/ IE *en per en tod > EPA *(en) per en ta > Alb brenda
/ie/ + /i/ /i/ /i/ IP *gʷedijos > EPA d͡ʒedija > Alb zi "black"
/e/ before *m followed by sibilant or affricate /i/ /i/ /i/ IE *sem-ǵʰo > EPA *semdza > Alb gjithë "all"
Classical Latin /e/ > EPA /ie/ in "usual" layer > /ie/ in EPA for "usual layer" (not identical to development of inherited /e/ which also went through /ie/) /je/ /je/ Lat VERSUM > Alb vjershë "verse"
>/e/ in various contexts after sh, before ng/nd, etc. /e/ Lat CONVENTUS > Alb kuvend
/ja/ /ja/ Lat HEBDOMAS > Alb javë "week"
/ja/ > /a/ after palatals /a/ Lat SELLA > Alb shalë "saddle"
Unstressed /ei/ in Latin loans /e/ /e/ Lat DEBITU꞉RA > Alb detyrë "duty"
Latin /e/ via an unknown different intermediary /e/ /e/ Lat INFERNUM > Alb ferr "hell"; Lat COMMERCIUM > Alb kumerq "toll, duty"
Latin /e/ loaned into Late Proto-Albanian while it lacked any short /e/ phoneme /i/ /i/ IE *ambʰi > EPA *ambi > Alb mbi "on, upon"; Lat PARENTEM > Alb prind "parent"; PIE t(e)r-m- > Alb trim "brave"
Between *r̥ and C /i/ /i/ /i/
/i/
> /ĩ/ before nasals /i/ /ĩ/ <î> EPA *rinja > Alb rij "to make humid" (Gheg: rî)
/u/ /u/ /u/ /u/ /u/ /u/ IE *bʰugʰ > EPA *bugta > Alb butë "smooth"
> /ũ/ before nasals /u/ /ũ/ <û> IE *ǵenu "knee" > EPA *ganuna > LPA glûna > Alb gju "knee" (Gheg: gjû)
Latin /o/ raises before nasals[62] Lat MONACHVS > murg "monk", CONTRĀ > kundër "against"[62]
Latin stressed[63] /o/ ultimately merges with PIE *ā elsewhere /o/ /o/ Lat COXA > kofshë "hip",[62] ROTA > rrotë "wheel" [63]
/aː/ /aː/ /aː/ /ɒː/ /o/ /o/ IE maːter "mother > EPA maːter > Alb motër "sister"
/eː/ /e:/ /e:/ everywhere except gliding to /j/ in clusters: /ɒː/ /o/ /o/ IE *meː-kwe > LPA mɒːts > Alb mos "don't"
/o:/ /o:/ /o:/ /we/ /e/ /e/ IE *bʰloːros > EPA bloːra > Alb blertë "green"
/i:/ /i:/ /i:/ /i:/ /i/ /i/ IE *piː- "to drink" > EPA *pi꞉ja > Alb pi "to drink"
/u:/ /u:/ /u:/ /ui/ /y/ /y/, /i/ in certain conditions EPA *suːsa > Alb gjysh "grandfather"
/wi/ > /i:/ at word coda after loss of nominative final s /i/ /i/ IE *suːs "pig" > EPA *tsu꞉s > LPA tθui > Alb thi "pig"
/wi/ > /i:/ after labial /i/ /i/ IE *bʰuː- "to grow" > EPA enbuːnja > Alb mbij "to thrive"
/wi/ > /i/ before labial /i/ /i/ IE *kreup > EPA kruːpaː > LPA krwipa > Alb kripë "salt"
/wi/ > /i/ before j, i, other palatal elements /i/ /i/ IE *dreu "tree" > EPA druːnjaː > drinjë "brushwood"
/ai/ /ai/ /ai/ > /ẽ/ > /ɑ̃/ before nasal /ə/ <ë> /ɑ̃/ <â, an> EPA *laidna > Alb lë ("to let"; Gheg: lâ)
/e/ /e/ /e/ IE *aidʰos > EPA *aida > Alb ethe "fever"
/oi/ /oi/ IE *ḱloitos > EPA *klaita: > Alb qetë "jagged rock"
/ei/ /ei/ /ei/ /i/ /i/ /i/ IE *ǵʰeimen- "winter" > EPA *deimena > Alb dimër "winter"(Gheg: dimën)
Diphthongs of long vowel + j j elided, long vowel develops regularly
/au/ /au/ /au/ >/ɑ̃/ before nasals /ə/ <ë> /ɑ̃/ <â, an> IE *dreu- "tree" > EPA *draunja: > Alb drënjë
/a/ /a/ /a/ *IE aug- > EPA *auga > Alb ag "dusk"
/a/ > /e/ /e/ /e/ EPA *ausra > Alb err "darkness"
/ou/ /ou/ /a/ /a/ /a/ IE *poujo- > EPA *pauja > Alb pah "scab, dust"
/a/ > /e/ /e/ /e/ EPA *gaura > Alb ger
/eu/ /eu/ /eu/ > /ẽ/ > /ɑ̃/ before nasal /ə/ <ë> /ɑ̃/ <â, an> IE *newn̩ "nine" > EPA *neunti > Alb nëntë ("nine", Gheg: nand)
/e/ /e/ /e/ IE *skeud- "to throw" > EPA *skeuda > Alb hedh

Development of Indo-European sonorants

The nasal sonorants *n̩ and *m̩ both rendered Early Proto-Albanian *a, which remains *a in modern Albanian (PIE *g'hn̩taː "goose" > EPA *gataː > modern Albanian gatë "heron"). Like EPA *a elsewhere, in some cases it was raised to *e, as seen in PIE *ln̩gwh- > EPA *laga > Albanian lehtë (suffixed with -të).[64]

Diachronic development of sonorants[65][66]
Proto-Indo-European Intermediate developments Early Proto-Albanian Later Proto-Albanian Old Albanian Tosk Albanian Gheg Albanian Example
*m̩ *a continue regular developments of *a from EPA in vowel chart. shtatë ‘seven’ < PIE *septm ̥-
*n̩ *a (i) gjatë ‘long’ < PIE *dln ̥gʰ-t-
*l̩ *il before consonant clusters, *i or *j il, li
*ul elsewhere ul, lu
*r̩ *ir before consonant clusters, *i or *j ir, ri
*ur elsewhere ur, ru
*l *l *l *l l l SA lagje ‘quarter’ < PIE *logʰ-
*l *λ (ly/-li)? j

l (Cham/Arbresh/

Arvanitika)

j SA gjuhë vs A/A gljuhë, SA mijë vs Cham milë
*ɫ (V_V) *ɫ ll

/γ/ (some Arbresh)

/ð/ (some Lab)

ll

/ð/ (some dialects)

SA hell ‘spear, spit’ < PIE *skōl-
*r *r *r (V_V) *r r r SA (i) mirë ‘good’ < PIE *miHr-
*r (V_V) *λ (-ri)? j j SA bij 'sons' < PA *bir-i
*r: (#_) *r: rr rr SA rrjedh ‘to flow’ < PIE *h₃reǵ-
*m *m *m m m SA motër ‘sister’ < PIE *meh₂-tr-
*n *n *n n

r (-n-)

n

ng /ŋ/ (from /ng/)

SA natë ‘night’ <PIE *nokʷt-
*n: (*-sn-, *-Cn-, *-nC-) n

n (-n-)

n

ng /ŋ/ (from /ng/)

Dialectal anë < PIE *h₂ewk(ʷ)- ~ *h₂uk(ʷ)-.
*ɲ (*gn-, before front vowels) nj nj

ni~n (northern)

SA njeri ‘man’ <PIE *h₂nḗr

Consonants

EPA Consonants[67]
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal *m *n
Plosive *p • *b *t • *d *ts • *dz *t͡ʃ • *d͡ʒ *k • *g
Fricative *s • *z *x
Glide *w *j
Lateral *l
Trill *r
LPA Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal *m *n
Plosive *p • *b *t • *d *ts *c *k • *g
Affricate *t͡ʃ
Fricative *f *θ • *ð *s • *z *ʃ *x
Glide *w *j
Lateral *l
Trill *r
Diachronic development[66]
Proto-Indo-European Pre-Proto-Albanian Early Proto-Albanian Later Proto-Albanian Modern Alb (Tosk/Gheg) Examples
*s *s *z > *j ɟ ~ d͡ʒ <gj> IE *serp- "to crawl" > EPA *serpena > Alb gjarpër "snake"
*s > *ʃ after *iː, *uː or -i, -u diphthongs ʃ <sh> IE *dʰouso- > EPA *dausa > Alb dash ("ram")
*ʃ word-initially (sometimes) ʃ <sh> SA shi ‘rain’ < PIE *suH-
> t͡s (if next consonant was *s) > *θ θ <th> IE *suːs ("pig") > EPA *t͡suːs > Alb thi ("pig")
>*x intervocalically or between EPA sonorant and vowel h IE *golso- ("sound") > EPA *gulxa > SA gjuhë
Ø IE *nosom > EPA *naxa > Alb na ("us")
*sK *sK *sK *x h SA hedh ‘to throw’ < PIE *skewd-
*sp- *sp- *sp- f- f- SA farë < PIE *spor-
*st *st *st ʃt ʃt SA shteg ‘path, road’ < PIE *stoygʰ-
*sd *[zd] *zd *zd ð dh SA pidh ‘female pudenda’ < PIE *peysd(ʰ)-
*s from Greek, Latin loanwords *ʃ ʃ <sh> Lat summus > Alb shumë "more", "much"
*p *p *p *p p IE *eːp ("to take") > EPA *eːpa > Alb jap ("to give")(Gheg: jep ep)
*b, *bʰ *b *b *b b IE *serbʰ- ("to suck in") > EPA *serba > Alb gjerb ("to gulp")
*w between a vowel and *u v EPA *abula > Alb avull ("vapor")
*t *t *t *t t IE *trejes ("three") > EPA *treje > Alb tre ("three")
*d, *dʰ *d *d *d d IE *dʰegʷʰ- ("to burn") > EPA *dega > Alb djeg ("to burn")
> *ð intervocalically or between r and vowel,

in 5th or 6th centuries[68]

ð <dh> IE *skeudV- ("to throw, shoot") > Alb hedh ("to throw, shoot")
*ḱ (*c?) *ḱ (*c?) >*t͡s > *θ θ <th> IE *ḱi-ḱer- ("pea"? cf Latin: cicer) > EPA *tsera > Alb thjerrë ("lentil")
> *t͡ʃ > *s before i, j, u, or w s IE *ḱupo- ("shoulder") > Alb sup ("shoulder");

IE *ḱiā dīti > EPA tsja(i) diti > Alb sot ("today")

*t͡s retained, conditions unclear t͡s <c> IE *h₂eḱ- ("sharp") > EPA *atsara > Alb acar "cold/ice cold"

(but doublet: > athët ("sour")

> *t͡ʃ, conditions unclear t͡ʃ <ç> IE *ḱentro- ("to stick") > Alb çandër ("prop")
> *k before sonorant *k k IE *smeḱr- ("chin") > Alb mjekër ("chin, beard")
*ǵ, *ǵʰ (*ɟ?) *ǵ (*ɟ?) *dz *ð dh SA dhëmb, Gheg dhãmb ‘tooth’ < PIE *ǵombʰ-
*dz~d? *ð~d? d SA dorë < PIE *ǵʰesr-
*d͡ʒ before w *z z SA zë, Gheg. zã (< zãn) < PIE *ǵʰweno-
*k *k *k *k k SA kam ‘to have’ < PIE *keh₂p-
*c (palatalised) q SA qaj 'to weep, cry' < PIE *kluH-i̯o-
*g, *gʰ *g *g *g g SA gardh ‘fence’ < PIE *gʰordʰ-
*j (palatalised) gj SA gjej 'to find' < PIE *gʰédni̯e/o-
*kʷ *kʷ? *t͡ʃ before front vowels *s s SA sjell ‘to bring’ < PIE *kʷelh₁-
*k elsewhere *k k SA pjek ‘to bake’ < PIE *pekʷ-
*c (palatalised) q SA që 'that, which' < PIE *kʷṓd
*gʷ, *gʷʰ *gʷ? *d͡ʒ(w) before front vowels *z z SA zorrë ‘gut’ < PIE *gʷʰērn-
*g elsewhere *g g SA djeg ‘to burn’ < PIE *dʰegʷʰ-
*j (palatalised) gj SA gjeth 'leaf' < PIE *gʷos(d)- 'wood'
*y *j *z (#_V) *j gj SA gjem ‘bridle’ < PIE *yom-
Ø (V_V) Ø Ø SA tre ‘three’ < PIE *treyes
*w *w *w (#_V) *w v SA vesh ‘to put on (clothes)’ < PIE *wes-
Ø (V_V) Ø Ø SA ve ‘widow’ < PIE *widʰewh₂

The development of IE dorsal consonants in Albanian

Indo-European languages are traditionally divided into two groups based on the development of the three series of dorsal (often called "guttural") stops, viz. the palatal (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ), velar (*k *g *gʰ) and labiovelar (*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) series. In the "centum" languages (e.g. Italic languages, Germanic languages, Greek) the palatal series has merged with velar series, while the labiovelar series remained distinct; whereas in the "satem" languages (Indo-Iranian languages, Balto-Slavic languages), the labiovelars merged with the plain velars, while the palatals shifted to sibilant consonants.[69]

Many Indo-Europeanists have classified Albanian as a satem language since it has dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ as the common reflex of the palatal series, while velar and labiovelar stops in most cases have merged.[70] However, there is clear evidence that all three IE dorsal series remained distinct (at least before front vowels) in Proto-Albanian:[71][72][73]

  • *ḱ > /θ/, *ǵ/*ǵʰ > /ð/
  • *k > /k/, *g/*gʰ > /g/
  • *kʷ > /s/ (before high vowels), /k/ (elsewhere); *gʷ/*gʷʰ > /z/ (before high vowels), /g/ elsewhere.

In the later phonologocal history of Albanian, the velars /k/ and /g/ were subject to further palatalizations.[74]

The (partial) retention of the Proto-IE three-way contrast for dorsal stops is an archaic feature that links Albanian with the wider Paleo-Balkanic group and is shared with Messapic[75] and Armenian.[76]

Classification & isoglosses with other Indo-European branches

The closest language to Albanian is Messapic, with which it forms a common branch titled Illyric in Hyllested & Joseph (2022).[77] Hyllested & Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify Greco-Phrygian as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian.[77] Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify the highest shared number of innovations between (Proto-)Albanian and (Proto-)Greek.[78]

Innovative creations of agricultural terms shared only between Albanian and Greek, such as *h2(e)lbh-it- 'barley' and *spor-eh2- 'seed', were formed from non-agricultural Proto-Indo-European roots through semantic changes to adapt them for agriculture. Since they are limited only to Albanian and Greek, they can be traced back with certainty only to their last common Indo-European ancestor, and not projected back into Proto-Indo-European.[79] Shortly after they had diverged from one another, Greek, Armenian, and partly Albanian undoubtedly also underwent a longer period of contact (as can be seen, for example, in the irregular correspondence: Greek σκόρ(ο)δον, Armenian sxtor, xstor, and Albanian hudhër, hurdhë "garlic"). Furthermore, intense Greek–Albanian contacts certainly occurred thereafter,[21] and ongoing connections between them have been in the Balkans from the ancient times, continuing up to the present-days.[80]

The deictic element *ḱjā- in PPAlb *ḱjā-dīti > Albanian sot ("today") has the same source as *kjā- in Proto-Greek *kjā-wētes (cf. Mycenean Greek za-we-te, Attic Greek τῆτες, and Ionic Greek σῆτες "this year"). These words are built combining the deictic element and a form of the word for "day" in Albanian (PPAlb *dīti-) and for "year" in Greek (PGk *wētes-). The deictic element resulted from a reanalysis of the word for "today" *kjāmer-, which contains the restricted word for "day" *āmer- (cf. Gk ἡμέρα, Doric Greek ἁμέρα, and Armenian awr). In PPalb only later the word āmer- was replaced by *dīti-, when the latter became the usual word for day in this language.[81] Another remarkable Greek/Albanian isogloss is a very ancient form for "hand": *mər-, cf. the Albanian verb marr ("hold") and the Greek márē ("hand"), and also Greek márptō ("grab").[82]

A common Balkan Indo-European root *aiğ(i)- ("goat") can be reflected in Albanian edh ("goat, kid") < PAlb *aidza and dhi ("nanny goat) < PAlb *aidzijɑ̄ with Greek αἴξ ("goat", gen. αἰγός) and Armenian ayc ("(nanny) goat"). It has been noted that the Balkan IE root and all the alleged Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian roots with a meaning "goat" are likely to be not Proto-Indo-European, as they may all originate as independent and relatively early, post-PIE borrowings, from the substrate languages spoken by the sedentary farmers who were encountered by immigrating Indo-European pastoralists. The view of a substrate borrowing can be corroborated by areal words for "goat" in other IE languages, such as Gothic gaits ("goat") and Latin haedus ("kid"), reflecting *gʰaid̯(-o)-, considered as a substrate word usually linked with Semitic languages (cf. Akkadian gadû, Aramaic gaδiā ̄"kid"). However it was most likely not directly borrowed from Semitic, but from a European substrate language that in turn had loaned the word from a common third source. Hence it can be viewed as an old cultural word, which was slowly transmitted to different European languages, and then adopted by the newcoming Indo-European speakers. Within this scenario it should be remarked the exclusive sharing of a common proto-form between Albanian, Greek, and Armenian, which could have been borrowed at a pre-stage that was common to these languages.[83] Specifically Indo-Iranian/Greek/Albanian and Greek/Armenian/Albanian isoglosses are both relatively rare, examples including ndaj (to divide; Indo-Greek-Albanian) and ëndërr ("dream"; Greek/Armenian/Albanian). Whereas Armenian/Albanian isoglosses are "insignificant", there are a considerable number of Indo-Iranian/Albanian isoglosses, which are notably often connected with horses, horse tending, and milk products.[84]

In older literature, Orel (2000) argues that Albanian has a large number of isoglosses that are common to Albanian, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic, as part of a "North Eastern" lexical grouping, with a large number of these referring to wood or objects made out of wood.[85] Orel (1998) noted 24 isoglosses between Balto-Slavic and Albanian, 48 common words between Baltic and Albanian and 24 between Albanian and Slavic. Hyllested & Joseph (2022) review Orel's common items and argue that a substantial number don't have convincing etymologies or do not constitute isoglosses between Balto-Slavic and Albanian. An example is Albanian murg (dark) and Lithuanian margas (colourful) which Orel considers to be isoglosses but both are equally related to Proto-Germanic *murkaz, ancient Greek ἀμορβός amorbos and Proto-Slavic *mergъ.[86]

Orel identifies only one Albanian/Italic/Celtic isogloss, blertë ("green"), cognate to Latin flōrus ("bright") and Irish blár ("gray").[87] Specifically Celtic/Albanian vocabulary was previously thought to be limited although including at least one core vocabulary item (hënë "moon", cognate to Welsh cann "white" and Breton cann "full moon"),[88] but recent work by Trumper in 2018 has proposed a larger though still not overwhelming set, with the notable addition of dritë ("light").[89]

Although knowledge of Tocharian is fragmentary, the one known Albanian/Tocharian isogloss is "very important" as noted by Orel: kush ("who", cognate to Tocharian A kus, with the same meaning).[90]

References

Notes

  1. ↑ The term was firstly introduced by Indo-European historical linguist Eric Pratt Hamp (1920 – 2019),[23] and thereafter adopted by a series of linguists.[24]
  2. ↑ 'Thracian', on the other hand, is distinguished from Albanoid by a clear isogloss – the palatilization of the IE labiovelars in Albanoid was present well before Roman times, while the IE labiovelars clearly did not palatalize in the pre-Roman period in 'Thracian' or in the area where it was spoken.[26]
  3. ↑ Absent for early part of period
  4. ↑ Absent for early part of period

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Matzinger 2016, p. 6: "Folgende Lautwandel charakterisieren u.a. das Uralbanische (Protoalbanische) und grenzen es dadurch als eine eigenständige idg. Sprache von anderen idg. Sprachen ab. Diese Phase kann präzisiert als Frühuralbanisch bezeichnet werden. Da das Hethitische (im antiken Kleinasien) und das mykenische Griechische schon im 2. Jahrtausend v.Chr. als voll ausgebildete, d.h. individuelle Sprachen dokumentiert sind, kann auch die Vorstufe des Albanischen (das Frühuralbanische) mindestens ab dem ersten Jahrtausend v.Chr. als eine ebenso schon voll ausgebildete, d.h. individuelle Sprache angesetzt werden".
  2. ↑ De Vaan 2018, p. 1732: "Internal comparison between the Tosk and Geg dialects allows us to reconstruct a Proto-Albanian stage (PAlb.; in German Uralbanisch; see Hock 2005; Klingenschmitt 1994: 221; Matzinger 2006: 23; B. Demiraj 1997: 41–67; Hamp 1992: 885–902). Additional external information on the development of the phonology is provided by different layers of loanwords, of which those from Slavic (from ca. 600 CE onward) and from Latin (ca. 167 BCE−400 CE) are the most important. Since the main phonological distinction between Tosk and Geg, viz. rhotacism of n, is found in only a few Slavic loanwords in Tosk (Ylli 1997: 317; Svane 1992: 292 f.), I assume that Proto-Albanian predated the influx of most of the Slavic loanwords.;
    Matzinger 2006, p. 41: "Diese Zeitspanne von der Antike bis ca. 600 n.Chr. wird in der Geschichtsschreibung die uralbanische Zeit genannt."
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Friedman 2022, pp. 189–231.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Lazaridis & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2022, pp. 1, 10.
  5. ↑ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 235; Friedman 2020, p. 388; Trumper 2018, p. 385; Yntema 2017, p. 337; Ismajli 2015, p. 45; Hamp & Adams 2013, p. 8.
  6. ↑ Hamp 1977, pp. 113–114; Huld 1984, p. 158; Joseph 2011, p. 128; Trumper 2018, p. 385; Friedman 2023, p. 345; Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81.
  7. ↑ Trumper 2018, p. 385.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 De Vaan 2018, p. 1732
  9. ↑ Matasović 2019, p. 6
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Orel 2000, p. XII
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Matasović 2019, p. 7
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Demiraj 2006, p. 483
  13. ↑ Fortson 2010, p. 392: "The dialectal split into Gheg and Tosk happened sometime after the region become Christianized in the fourth century AD; Christian Latin loanwords show Tosk rhotacism, such as Tosk murgu "monk" (Geg mungu) from Lat. monachus."
  14. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 9: "The Greek and Latin loans have undergone most of the far-reaching phonological changes which have so altered the shape of inherited words while Slavic and Turkish words do not show those changes. Thus Albanian must have acquired much of its present form by the time Slavs entered into Balkans in the fifth and sixth centuries AD"
  15. ↑ Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 23: "In Tosk /a/ before a nasal has become a central vowel (shwa), and intervocalic /n/ has become /r/. These two sound changes have affected only the pre-Slav stratum of the Albanian lexicon, that is the native words and loanwords from Greek and Latin"
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Chang, Will; Chundra, Cathcart (January 2015). "Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis". Language 91 (1): 194–244. doi:10.1353/lan.2015.0005. https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/news/ChangEtAlPreprint.pdf. Retrieved 30 September 2020. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.
  18. ↑ Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. ISBN 9781907029325. 
  19. ↑ Kroonen et al., pp. 1, 11, 26, 28.
  20. ↑ Olsen & Thorsø 2022, p. 209.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Thorsø 2019, p. 258.
  22. ↑ Kroonen et al., pp. 11, 26, 28
  23. ↑ Joseph 2011, p. 128.
  24. ↑ Huld 1984, p. 158; Joseph 1999, p. 222; Trumper 2018, p. 385; Friedman 2023, p. 345; Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81.
  25. ↑ Hamp 1981, p. 130; Hamp 2002, p. 249; Joseph 2011, p. 128; Ismajli 2013, p. 24; Ismajli 2015, pp. 36–38; Trumper 2018, pp. 383–386; Manzini 2018, p. 15; Friedman 2019, p. 19.
  26. ↑ Hamp 1980, p. 60.
  27. ↑ Hamp 1976, pp. 209–210; Hamp 1977, pp. 113–114; Cabej 1985, p. 68; Bubenik 1997, p. 104; Ködderitzsch 1998, p. 88; Ismajli 2013, p. 24; Friedman 2020, p. 388.
  28. ↑ Huld 1984, p. 161; Bubenik 1997, p. 104.
  29. ↑ Hamp 1976, pp. 209–210; Hamp 1977, pp. 113–114; Ködderitzsch 1998, p. 88; Ismajli 2013, p. 24; Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81.
  30. ↑ Hamp 1976, pp. 209–210; Hamp 1977, pp. 113–114; Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81
  31. ↑ Trumper 2018, pp. 383–386; Manzini 2018, p. 15; Ismajli 2013, p. 24.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Huld 1986, pp. 245–250.
  34. ↑ Huld 1984, p. 158.
  35. ↑ Coretta, Stefano; Riverin-Coutlée, Josiane; Kapia, Enkeleida; Nichols, Stephen (16 August 2022). "Northern Tosk Albanian". Journal of the International Phonetic Association: 1–23. doi:10.1017/S0025100322000044. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/northern-tosk-albanian/D27484BD90369B3BC0FBA9479074ED88. "Though the origin of the language has been debated, the prevailing opinion in the literature is that it is a descendant of Illyrian (Hetzer 1995).". 
  36. ↑ Matasović 2019, p. 5: "Much has been written about the origin of the Albanian language. The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian, since much of the present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian, despite the fact that two handbooks of that language have been published (by Hans Krahe and Anton Mayer)... examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises -from which 'Illyrian' language did Albanian develop, and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered.The single "Illyrian" gloss preserved in Greek (rhínon 'fog') may have the reflex in Alb. (Gheg) re͂ 'cloud' (Tosk re)< PAlb. *ren-."
  37. ↑ Beekes 2011, p. 25: "It is often thought (for obvious geographic reasons) that Albanian descends from ancient Illyrian (see above), but this cannot be ascertained as we know next to nothing about Illyrian itself."
  38. ↑ Fortson 2010, p. 446: "Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records. This is one of the reasons why its origins are shrouded in mystery and controversy. The widespread assertion that it is the modern–day descendant of Illyrian, spoken in much the same region during classical times ([...]), makes geographic and historical sense but is linguistically untestable since we know so little about Illyrian."
  39. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 11: "Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian. The latter was at least attested in what is historically regarded as Albanian territory and there is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since our records of Illyrian occupation. The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their histori-cal neighbors. As the Illyrians occupied Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans."
  40. ↑ Villar, Francisco (1996) (in es). Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Madrid: Gredos. pp. 313–314, 316. ISBN 84-249-1787-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=d5NbPAAACAAJ. 
  41. ↑ Friedman 2020, p. 388.
  42. ↑ Matzinger 2018, p. 1790.
  43. ↑ Ismajli 2015, p. 45.
  44. ↑ Hamp & Adams 2013, p. 8.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 Orel 2000, p. 1
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 Matasović 2019, p. 39
  47. ↑ Demiraj 1997, pp. 41–67
  48. ↑ Matzinger 2006, p. 23
  49. ↑ Klingenschmitt 1994, p. 221
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Orel 2000, pp. 20–21
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Orel 2000, p. 270
  52. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 8–12
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 Orel 2000, pp. 15–16
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 Paçarizi 2008, pp. 101–102
  55. ↑ Totoni 1964, p. 136
  56. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 15
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 Orel 2000, pp. 42
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Orel 2000, pp. 143–144
  59. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 3
  60. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 2–3
  61. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 3–4
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 de Vaan, Michiel (2018). "The phonology of Albanian". in Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (in en). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 3. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1735. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Orel 2000, p. 27
  64. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 42
  65. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 271–272
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Rusakov 2017, pp. 566–571
  67. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 273–274
  68. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 65
  69. ↑ Fortson 2010, p. 58–59.
  70. ↑ Fortson 2010, p. 449.
  71. ↑ Fortson 2010, p. 450.
  72. ↑ Rusakov 2017, p. 559.
  73. ↑ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, pp. 238–239.
  74. ↑ Rusakov 2017, p. 571.
  75. ↑ Matzinger 2005, p. 47.
  76. ↑ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, pp. 229.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Joseph & Hyllested 2022, p. 235.
  78. ↑ Joseph & Hyllested 2022, p. 226.
  79. ↑ Kroonen et al., pp. 11, 26, 28
  80. ↑ Joseph 2013, p. 7.
  81. ↑ Joseph 2013, pp. 15–16.
  82. ↑ Bubenik 1997, p. 104.
  83. ↑ Thorsø 2019, p. 255.
  84. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 259–260
  85. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 250–251
  86. ↑ Joseph & Hyllested 2022, p. 223.
  87. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 257
  88. ↑ Orel 2000, pp. 256–257
  89. ↑ Trumper 2018, p. 379.
  90. ↑ Orel 2000, p. 260

Bibliography



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