Social:Proto-Kam–Sui language

Short description: Reconstructed ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages

Proto-Kam–Sui
Reconstruction of	Kam–Sui languages
Region	South China
Reconstructed ancestor	Proto-Kra–Dai

Proto-Kam–Sui (typically abbreviated as PKS) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages.

Reconstructions

A preliminary reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui has been published by Graham Thurgood (1988). Ostapirat (1994a, 1994b) addressed issues such as breathiness and preglottalized nasals in Proto-Kam-Sui. Ostapirat (2006) also proposed that presyllables in Proto-Kam–Sui had contrastive accent.

Another reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui, mostly based on Thurgood's reconstruction, was proposed by Ilia Peiros as part of his reconstruction of Tai-Kadai, which was done without taking the Kra languages into account.

A new reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui is currently being undertaken by Peter K. Norquest. Norquest (2021) reconstructs velarized consonantal onsets and retroflexes such as *ɭ in Proto-Kam–Sui.

History

Liang & Zhang (1996) consider western Guangdong to be the original homeland of Proto-Kam–Sui. According to Liang & Zhang (1996:25–29), based on evidence from Chinese written historical records, Kam-Sui languages were originally spoken in western Guangdong, but Kam-Sui peoples later started to migrate out of Guangdong during the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty (from the years 600–800). Sui and Maonan migrations were completed by the Song dynasty, around the years 1000–1100, while the Lakkia migrated to their current location in Guangxi from Huaiji County and Fengkai County, Guangdong during the beginning of the Ming dynasty (years 1300–1400).

Lexicon

Thurgood's (1988: 209–218) reconstructed Proto-Kam–Sui forms are listed below.

• *hwaːt⁷ 'angry'
• *hnaːn⁵ 'angry'
• *taːp⁷ 'to answer'
• *mwit⁸ 'ant'
• *laːk⁸ 'arm'
• *k-xiːn¹ 'arm'
• *khjaːk⁷ 'armpit'
• *taŋ¹ 'arrive, reach'
• *cha⁵ 'ascend'
• *phwuːk⁷ 'ashes'
• *phlaːu⁵ 'ashes'
• *pa³ 'aunt'
• *hlaːi¹ 'back(bone)'
• *lun² 'back, behind'
• *hwaːi⁶ 'bad, cruel'
• *thruk⁷ 'bamboo strip'
• *xwan¹ 'bamboo'
• *pwaŋ⁵ 'bank, shore'
• *khrau⁵ 'to bark'
• *ɗuŋ³ 'basket, winnowing'
• *ʔaːp⁷ 'bathe'
• *ʔmuːi¹ 'bear'
• *m-luːt⁸ 'beard'
• *hȵiŋ¹ 'bedbug'
• *mit⁸ 'bee'
• *daːŋ² 'bee'
• *ʔdlu¹ 'bee, wasp'
• *te³ 'below'
• *mluk⁸ 'bird'
• *krip⁷ 'bite; chew'
• *kam¹ 'bitter'
• *ʔnam¹ 'black'
• *ɓuːt⁷ 'blind'
• *phlaːt⁷ 'blood'
• *hwaːt⁷ 'blow (wind)'
• *dzup⁸ 'to blow'
• *thrun¹ 'body'
• *tlaːk⁷ 'bone'
• *cam³ 'bow, bend'
• *duːi⁴ 'bowl, cup'
• *ʔŋa⁵ 'branch'
• *ciŋ⁵ 'branch'
• *praːk⁷ 'break, tear'
• **kraːŋ¹ 'bright'
• *ɣwaːi⁴ 'brother, older'
• *dzuːk⁸ 'to bundle'
• *hmuk⁷ 'bury'
• *trai³ 'to buy'
• *kaːt⁷ 'cabbage'
• *laːp⁸ 'candle'
• *ʔma⁵ 'carry on back'
• *kjap⁷ 'catch, grasp'
• *kaːm¹ 'cave'
• *khryap⁷ 'centipede'
• *tak⁷ 'chest (body)'
• *hmaːk⁷ 'to chew'
• *hnaːi⁵ 'to chew'
• *kaːi⁵ 'chicken'
• *hŋlaːŋ⁵ 'young chicken'
• *hmaːk⁷ 'to chop'
• *pram³ 'to chop'
• *khlap⁷ 'close (eyes)'
• *m-xwa³ 'cloud'
• *hnu¹ 'cold'
• *paŋ¹ 'collapse'
• *hma¹ 'come; return'
• *kjaːp⁷' 'to connect'
• *duŋ² 'copper'
• *ȵai⁶' 'count'
• *hraːŋ⁵ 'a cover'
• *khruːi¹ 'cowry (money), shell(fish)'
• *hlaːi⁵ 'to crawl'
• *da⁶ 'cross, pass'
• *ka¹ 'a crow'
• *kat⁷ 'to cut'
• *kaːt⁷ 'to cut'
• *hŋwan¹ 'day'
• *ɗak⁷ 'deaf'
• *ʔyam¹ 'deep'
• *hluːi⁵ 'descend'
• *laːi⁴ 'devil, ghost'
• *pjai¹ 'to die'
• *di⁶ 'dirt, earth'
• *ɓja⁵ 'disgusted'
• *k-hma¹ 'dog'
• *tu¹ 'door'
• *gwau² 'dove'
• *tak⁷ 'draw water'
• *te³ 'draw water'
• *pwjan¹ 'dream'
• *trwap⁷ 'to drink'
• *tuk⁷ 'drop, fall'
• *tuk⁷ 'drop, fall'
• *dip⁸ 'dull'
• *mpraːŋ¹ 'ear of grain'
• *khra¹ 'ear'
• *khjam¹ 'early'
• *caːn¹ 'eat'
• *krai⁵ 'egg'
• *pjaːt⁷ 'eight'
• *phe¹ 'end, tip'
• *ʔȵam⁵ 'evening'
• *hlik⁷ 'exchange'
• *ke⁴ 'excrement'
• *mpiŋ¹ 'expensive'
• *ɗap⁷ 'extinguish'
• *thla¹ 'eye'
• *ʔna³ 'face, in front'
• *lai⁴ 'to fall'
• *klaːi¹ 'far'
• *tut⁷ 'fart'
• *gjaːŋ⁴ 'feed, raise'
• *traːi⁵ 'dry field'
• *ʔra⁵ 'paddy field'
• *ʔdlyap⁷? 'fingernail'
• *pwai¹ 'fire'
• *kuːn⁵ 'first'
• *mlit⁸ 'fish (loach)'
• *mprai³ 'fish'
• *pa¹ 'fish'
• *mum⁶ 'fish'
• *ŋu⁴ 'five'
• *k-hmat⁷ 'flea'
• *naːn⁴ 'flesh, meat'
• *nuk⁷'' 'flower'
• *muk⁸ 'fog'
• *praːk⁷ 'forehead'
• *ɗuŋ¹ 'forest'
• *laːm² 'to forget'
• *kup⁷ 'field frog'
• *k-wai³ 'small frog'
• *tiːk⁷ 'full'
• *ɗai³ 'to get, gain'
• *ʔȵaːk⁷ 'gills'
• *khjaːi¹ 'to give'
• *ʔuːk⁷ 'to go out, out'
• *paːi¹ 'to go, walk'
• *mwaːŋ¹ 'god, ghost'
• *ɗaːi¹ 'good'
• *gju⁴ 'granary'
• *khlaːn¹ 'grandchild'
• *thrak⁷ 'grasshopper'
• *pram¹ 'hair, head'
• *k-mja¹ 'hand'
• **kra³ 'hard'
• *pram¹ 'to hatch'
• *ʔnaŋ¹ 'to have'
• *me² 'to have'
• *kru³ 'head'
• *dai² 'to hit'
• *ʔŋam¹ 'to hold in mouth'
• *ʔuːm³ 'hold (child)'
• *ȵam¹ 'to hold'
• *hŋuːm³ 'to hold'
• *m-kwaːu¹ 'horn'
• *ma⁴ 'horse'
• *hraːn¹ 'house'
• *ɓjaːk⁷ 'hungry'
• *ʔre¹ 'husband'
• *mpaːk⁷ 'insane'
• *ȵak⁸ 'to insert'
• *tshaːp⁷ 'to insert'
• *khjaːi³ 'intestine'
• *khlit⁷ 'iron'
• *daːp⁸ 'to kick'
• *gruk⁸ 'to kneel'
• *miːt⁸ 'knife'
• *mbra⁴ 'knife, sword'
• *khwe¹ 'late'
• *kru¹ 'to laugh'
• *khlut⁷ 'lazy'
• *laːn⁴ 'lazy'
• *pwa⁵ 'leaf'
• *ʔniŋ³ 'to lean'
• *mpliŋ¹ 'leech'
• *kla¹ 'left over'
• *kwa¹ 'leg'
• *tiːn¹ 'leg, foot'
• *lja²? 'lick'
• *ljaːm⁵? 'lick'
• *ɓau¹ 'light, to float'
• *ʔdlaːp⁷ 'lightning'
• *maŋ⁴ 'to like'
• *tap⁷ 'liver'
• *ʔraːi³ 'long'
• *kraːk⁷ 'loom'
• *tuk⁷ 'to lose, misplace'
• *nan¹'' 'louse'
• *mprai¹ 'louse, chicken'
• *mprum¹ 'to love (child)'
• *thram⁵ 'low'
• **ʔnuːn¹ 'maggot'
• *mpaːn¹ 'male (person)'
• *ʔme¹ 'mark'
• *hle¹ 'mark'
• *mpraːŋ¹ 'mat (straw)'
• *ŋe² 'meal, early'
• *mbrau² 'meal, late'
• *gja² 'medicine, to cure'
• *ta⁵ 'middle'
• *muːn⁶ 'monkey'
• *nüaːn¹'' 'moon, month'
• *hjit⁷ 'morning'
• *paːk⁷ 'mouth'
• *muːk⁸ 'mucus'
• *khlum⁵ 'mud, dirt'
• *naːm⁵ 'mud, dirt'
• *hŋla¹ 'mushroom'
• *taːk⁷ 'to nail'
• *ɓlwa¹ 'navel'
• *phlai⁵ 'near'
• *ke¹ 'net (to cast)'
• *hmai⁵ 'new'
• *ʔnaŋ¹ 'nose, face'
• *man² 'oil'
• *kaːu⁵ 'old (things)'
• *ke⁵ 'old (vegetables)'
• *ɓjaːn³ 'otter, beaver'
• *chaːt⁷ 'otter, beaver'
• *ʔŋluːk⁷ 'outside'
• *phwa³ 'palm (hand)'
• *lin⁶ 'pangolin'
• *laːk⁸ 'person, child'
• *kjaːk⁷ 'pestle'
• *cup⁷ 'to pick up'
• *ɓit⁷ 'to pick (flowers)'
• *laːi⁶ 'to pick, select'
• *k-hmu⁵ 'pig'
• *ʔdlaːi⁵ 'wild pig'
• *dap⁸ 'to pile'
• *ʔlaːu¹ 'pillar'
• *liːn² 'pipe, water'
• *ljum² 'to plant'
• *mpra¹ 'to plant'
• *ʔdram¹ 'to transplant'
• *pwak⁷ 'pod, sheath'
• *hŋlaːn¹ 'shoulder pole'
• *ʔmiːn³ 'porcupine, wild pig'
• *ʔdlaːk⁷ 'to pull'
• *zuk⁸ 'pus'
• *kat⁷ 'to put'
• *naːŋ¹ 'raft, bamboo'
• *xwin¹ 'to rain'
• *hnu³ 'rat, mouse'
• *ɗip⁷ 'raw, live'
• *duk⁸ 'to read'
• *hwa¹ 'right side'
• *zuk⁸ 'ripe, cooked'
• *hma³ 'to rise (river)'
• *ʔnja¹ 'river'
• *pra¹ 'rock, cliff'
• *kjaːŋ¹ 'root'
• *ʔlaːk⁷ 'rope'
• *laːn⁶ 'to rot'
• *naːu⁶ 'rotten'
• **krin⁵ 'scales'
• *khjaːn⁵ 'to scare'
• *tak⁷ 'to scoop'
• *ʔlun¹ 'to see'
• *ɗai³ 'to see'
• *pwan¹ 'seed'
• *kla³ 'rice seedling'
• *kwe¹ 'to sell'
• *ʔŋra¹ 'sesame'
• *tau¹ 'shadow'
• *ŋaːu² 'to shake'
• *m-hliːn⁵? 'shallow'
• *hraːi⁵ 'be sharp'
• *gwan² 'to sharpen'
• *khjam¹ 'sharpened, pointed'
• *ɗau⁵ 'spiral shell'
• *thrin³ 'short'
• *pjau⁵ 'shuttle'
• *nu⁴ 'younger sibling'
• *ʔram¹ 'to sink'
• *dzuːi⁶ 'to sit'
• *ljuk⁸ 'six'
• *hŋra¹ 'skin'
• *ʔrwum¹? 'skinny, lean'
• *ɓun¹ 'sky'
• *nuːn² 'to sleep'
• *nun⁴ 'to smell'
• *dzuːi² 'snake'
• *ʔnuːi¹ 'snow'
• *hma⁵ 'soak, pickle'
• *maːt⁸ 'socks'
• *ʔma³ 'soft'
• *khjum³ 'sour'
• *tljaːi³? 'sparrow'
• *m-hljaːn⁵ 'spicy (hot)'
• *pha⁵ 'to split'
• *hmaːk⁷ 'to split'
• *ŋa² 'sprout, a'
• *khlak⁷ 'stake, post'
• *ʔdraːu¹ 'star'
• *hmlut⁷ 'star'
• *ŋjaːu⁶ 'to stay, live'
• *hljak⁷ 'to steal'
• *luŋ² 'stomach'
• *mpwaːŋ¹ 'straw'
• *kruːi³ 'stream'
• *kjak⁷ 'to stuff'
• *hwit⁷' 'to stuff'
• *ʔuːi³ 'sugar cane'
• *ʔiːn⁵ 'a swallow'
• *phjit⁷? 'to sweep'
• *khwaːn¹ 'sweet'
• *khjut⁷ 'tail'
• *ʔaːu¹ 'to take'
• *ɓraːk⁷ 'taro'
• *ʔna¹ 'thick'
• *ʔnak⁷ 'thick, viscous'
• *ɓwaːŋ¹ 'thin'
• *naːi⁶ 'this'
• *tiːn³ 'thunder'
• *lai⁶ 'thunder'
• *pra³ 'thunder, lightning'
• *mum⁴ 'tiger'
• *khwe³ 'tired'
• *ʔni⁵ 'tired'
• *ma² 'tongue'
• *pjwan¹ 'tooth'
• *hȵa⁵ 'trace, dregs'
• *mai⁴ 'tree, wood'
• *kjaːt⁷ 'to twist'
• *hra¹ 'two'
• *ta¹ 'uncle'
• *kam³ 'upside down'
• *juŋ⁶ 'to use'
• *ʔma¹ 'vegetable'
• *hruːi¹ 'vestige'
• *ɓaːn³ 'village'
• *trwak⁷ 'to vomit'
• *kra³ 'to wait'
• *chaːm³ 'to walk, crawl'
• *aːu¹ 'to want'
• *ʔlak⁷ 'to wash clothes'
• *zuːk 'to wash hands'
• *ȵam³ 'water'
• *traːu¹ 'we (incl.)'
• *tan³ 'to wear'
• *tam³ 'to weave'
• *kjaːn¹ 'to weave, plait'
• *ne¹'' 'to weed'
• *ʔȵe³ 'to weep, cry'
• *ɓun⁵ 'well, spring'
• *ɓu⁵ 'well, spring'
• *thlam¹ 'well, pond, pool'
• *ʔrak⁷ 'wet'
• *hlwum¹ 'wind'
• *khlaːu³ 'rice wine'
• *pwa⁵ 'wing'
• *ɓjaːk⁷ 'woman, girl'
• *trit⁷ '(fire)wood'
• *dzan⁴ 'worm'
• *tuːk⁷ 'to wrap, bundle'
• *ɓjuːt⁷? 'to wring towel'
• *kjaːt⁷ 'to write'
• *man² 'yam'
• *mpe¹ 'year'

Comparison with Proto-Tai

Some Proto-Kam-Sui lexical items are cognate with Proto-Tai but differ in proto-tone.

Gloss	Proto-Kam-Sui	Proto-Tai
‘pig’	*qʰ-muːh	*m̥uː
‘rat’	*hnɔːʔ	*n̥uː
‘long’	*ʔraːjʔ	*rɯj

The reconstructions above are those of Norquest (2021).

External links

• Reconstruction of Proto Kam-Sui by Peter K. Norquest, hosted at the SEAlang Library