View source for Astronomy:Artemis Accords

{{Short description|Multilateral agreement on human moon exploration}}
{{Infobox treaty
| name                = Artemis Accords
| long_name           = The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes
| image               = Artemis Accords Map (January 23, 2024).png
| image_width         = 350 px
| image_alt           = Map of states' adoption of the Artemis Accords
| caption             = Participation in the Artemis Accords (Nov. 2023)
{{Col-begin}}
{{legend|#B22222|Signatory nation}}
{{Col-end}}
| type                = [[Astronomy:Space law|Space law]]
| date_drafted        =
| date_signed         = {{start date and age|13 October 2020}}
| parties             =
* Angola
* Argentina<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.infobae.com/america/agencias/2023/07/27/nasa-destaca-la-decision-de-argentina-de-adherir-a-los-acuerdos-de-artemisa/|work=Infobae|title=NASA destaca la decisión de Argentina de adherir a los Acuerdos de Artemisa|date=27 July 2023|access-date=27 July 2023|trans-title=NASA commends Argentina's decision to adhere to the Artemis Accords|language=es}}</ref> 
* Australia
* Bahrain
*Belgium<ref>https://spacenews.com/belgium-signs-artemis-accords/</ref>
* Brazil<ref name="Artemis Brazil">{{Cite web|title=Brazil Signs Artemis Accords|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/brazil-signs-artemis-accords|date=15 June 2021|website=NASA.gov}}</ref>
* Bulgaria<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bulgaria Signs Artemis Accords at NASA Headquarters; Joins 31 Nations|url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/bulgaria-signs-artemis-accords-at-nasa-headquarters-joins-31-nations/|date=9 November 2023|website=NASA.gov}}</ref>
* Canada
* Colombia
* Czech Republic
* Ecuador
* France
* Germany<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germany signs the Artemis Accords |url=https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2023/03/germany-signs-the-artemis-accords |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.dlr.de |language=en}}</ref>
* Iceland
* India
* Israel<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eurasiantimes.com/israel-american-nasa-set-to-collaborate-on-space-exploration-special-focus-on-moon-and-mars-minister/|title = Israel, American NASA Set To Collaborate On Space Exploration; Special Focus On Moon And Mars – Minister}}</ref>
* Italy
* Japan
* Luxembourg
* Mexico<ref name="Artemis Mexico">{{cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=https://spacenews.com/mexico-joins-artemis-accords/|title=Mexico joins Artemis Accords|work=SpaceNews|date=10 December 2021|access-date=10 December 2021}}</ref>
* Netherlands
* New Zealand<ref>{{Cite web|title=Space exploration soars with Artemis Accords|url=http://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/space-exploration-soars-artemis-accords|access-date=2021-06-01|website=The Beehive|language=en}}</ref>
* Nigeria
* Poland
* South Korea<ref name="auto2"/>
* Romania
* Rwanda
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Spain
* Ukraine<ref name="auto1"/>
* United Arab Emirates
* United Kingdom
* United States
| languages           = English
| wikisource          = Artemis Accords
}}

The '''Artemis Accords''' is a non-binding multilateral arrangement between the United States government and other world governments participating in the [[Astronomy:Artemis program|Artemis program]], an American-led effort to return humans to the [[Astronomy:Moon|Moon]] by 2026, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dunbar|first=Brian|date=2019-07-23|title=What is Artemis?|url=http://www.nasa.gov/what-is-artemis|access-date=2021-05-01|website=NASA}}</ref> As of January 28, 2024, thirty-four countries and one territory have signed the accords, including fourteen in [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], eight in [[Earth:Asia|Asia]], four in [[Earth:South America|South America]], three in [[Earth:North America|North America]], two in [[Earth:Oceania|Oceania]] and four in [[Earth:Africa|Africa]].

Drafted by [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] and the U.S. Department of State, the Accords establish a framework for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the [[Astronomy:Moon|Moon]], [[Astronomy:Mars|Mars]], and other astronomical objects.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA: Artemis Accords|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html|access-date=2021-05-01|website=NASA}}</ref> They are explicitly grounded in the {{wipe|United Nations}} [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]] of 1967, which signatories are obliged to uphold, and cite most major U.N.-brokered conventions constituting [[Astronomy:Space law|space law]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-10-13|title=NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with Artemis Accords|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-of-artemis-accords|access-date=2021-05-01|website=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-20|title=Fact Sheet: Artemis Accords - United for Peaceful Exploration of Deep Space|url=https://br.usembassy.gov/fact-sheet-artemis-accords-united-for-peaceful-exploration-of-deep-space/|access-date=2021-05-01|website=U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Brazil|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Newman 2020">{{cite web | last=Newman | first=Christopher | title=Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon exploration agreement | website=The Conversation | date=2020-10-19 | url=http://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134 | access-date=2021-06-17}}</ref><ref name="ASIL">{{cite web | title=The Artemis Accords and the Future of International Space Law | website=ASIL | url=https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/24/issue/31/artemis-accords-and-future-international-space-law | access-date=2021-06-17}}</ref><ref group="note">Except the [[Astronomy:Moon Treaty|Moon Treaty]], despite Australia having ratified it.</ref>

The Accords were signed on 13 October 2020 by representatives of the [[Astronomy:List of government space agencies|national space agencies]] of eight countries: {{wipe|Australia}}, {{wipe|Canada}}, Italy, {{wipe|Japan}}, Luxembourg, the [[Place:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], the {{wipe|United Kingdom}} and the {{wipe|United States}}.<ref name="auto"/> Additional signatories include Angola, {{wipe|Argentina}}, Bahrain, Belgium, {{wipe|Brazil}}, Bulgaria, Colombia, [[Place:Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], Ecuador, {{wipe|France}}, {{wipe|Germany}}, Iceland, {{wipe|India}}, [[Place:Israel|Israel]],  Mexico, Netherlands, [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], Nigeria, {{wipe|Poland}}, Romania, [[Biology:Rwanda|Rwanda]], Saudi Arabia, [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]], {{wipe|South Korea}}, {{wipe|Spain}} and {{wipe|Ukraine}}. The Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates more nations joining.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Oct 13, 2020|title=NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-of-artemis-accords|url-status=live|website=NASA|quote=Additional countries will join the Artemis Accords in the months and years ahead, as NASA continues to work with its international partners to establish a safe, peaceful, and prosperous future in space. Working with emerging space agencies, as well as existing partners and well-established space agencies, will add new energy and capabilities to ensure the entire world can benefit from the Artemis journey of exploration and discovery.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015052621/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-of-artemis-accords/ |archive-date=2020-10-15 }}</ref> Additional signatories can choose to directly participate in Artemis program activities, or may agree simply to commit to the principles for responsible exploration of the Moon as set out in the Accords.<ref>{{cite news|title=Artemis Accords: Why the international moon exploration framework matters|url=https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-moon-space-exploration-importance|first=Elizabeth|last=Howell|date=August 25, 2022|publisher=Space.com|access-date=November 6, 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
On 5 May 2020, ''{{wipe|Reuters}}'' published an exclusive report that the Donald Trump administration was drafting a new international agreement for [[Astronomy:Lunar resources|mining on the Moon]], which would draw from the 1967 [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]].<ref name="nasa-artemis20200516" /><ref>{{cite news|date=6 May 2020|title=Exclusive: Trump administration drafting 'Artemis Accords' pact for moon mining - sources|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-moon-mining-exclusi-idUSKBN22H2SB|access-date=15 May 2020}}</ref> Ten days later, then-NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine officially announced the Artemis Accords, a series of agreements with partner nations aimed at establishing a governing framework for exploring and mining the Moon.<ref name="sdc20200515" />

The Accords originated from the eponymous Artemis Program, an American plan launched in 2017 to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon by 2024.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Grush|first=Loren|date=2020-10-13|title=US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/13/21507204/nasa-artemis-accords-8-countries-moon-outer-space-treaty|access-date=2021-05-01|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref> Bridenstine stated that the agreements were intended to create a uniform set of guidelines for countries to avoid potential conflict or misunderstanding in future space endeavors; governments that sign the Accords may formally take part in the Artemis Program.<ref name=":0" />

The Accords were drafted by NASA, the U.S. Department of State, and the newly re-established National Space Council; a draft was released to several governments for consultation before the final document was announced in May 2020.<ref name="sdc20200515">{{cite news|title=NASA lays out 'Artemis Accords' for responsible moon exploration|url=https://www.space.com/nasa-artemis-accords-moon-exploration.html|last=Wall |first=Mike|website=space.com|date=15 May 2020|access-date=16 May 2020 }}</ref><ref name="nasa-artemis20200516">{{cite web|title=NASA: Artemis Accords|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html |website=nasa.gov|publisher=NASA|access-date=16 May 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

On 13 October 2020, in a recorded and [[Livestreaming|livestreamed]] ceremony, the Accords were signed by the directors of the national space agencies of the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="Verge">{{cite web | url = https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/13/21507204/nasa-artemis-accords-8-countries-moon-outer-space-treaty | title = US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon | first = Lauren | last = Grush | date = October 13, 2020 | access-date = October 13, 2020 | work = [[The Verge]] }}</ref> The head of the Ukrainian national space agency signed the Accords exactly one month later.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-17|title=Ukraine becomes the 9th country to sign the Artemis Accords|url=https://ua.usembassy.gov/ukraine-becomes-the-9th-country-to-sign-the-artemis-accords/|access-date=2021-05-01|website=U.S. Embassy in Ukraine|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Україна стала дев'ятою країною, яка підписала Домовленості в рамках програми "Артеміда"|url=https://www.nkau.gov.ua/ua/news/main-themes/1597-ukraina-stala-deviatoiu-krainoiu-iaka-pidpysala-domovlenosti-v-ramkakh-prohramy-artemida|access-date=2020-11-15|website=www.nkau.gov.ua|language=uk-ua}}</ref>

On 24 May 2021, South Korea became the tenth country to sign the Accords,<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2021-05-27|title=Republic of Korea Joins List of Nations to Sign Artemis Accords|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/republic-of-korea-joins-list-of-nations-to-sign-artemis-accords|website=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2021-05-26|title=Republic of Korea Joins List of Nations to Sign Artemis Accords|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/republic-of-korea-joins-list-of-nations-to-sign-artemis-accords|access-date=2021-05-26|website=NASA}}</ref> with New Zealand joining a week later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2021-06-01 |title=New Zealand signs Artemis Accords |url=https://spacenews.com/new-zealand-signs-artemis-accords/ |access-date= |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref> The following June, Brazil became the first country in Latin America to join the Artemis Accords,<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1404826036127342593|user=senbillnelson|title=Brazil joins 11 other nations as a signatory of the #Artemis Accords today! As the 1st country in South America to make this commitment to a sustainable space environment, Brazil shows the global impact of the Accords around the world. Thanks for your support, @Astro_Pontes!|author=Bill Nelson|date=June 15, 2021}}</ref> after previously indicating its intent to sign in 2020.<ref name="Artemis Brazil"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-12-14|title=NASA Administrator Signs Statement of Intent with Brazil on Artemis|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-administrator-signs-statement-of-intent-with-brazil-on-artemis-cooperation|access-date=2021-05-01|website=NASA}}</ref>

Poland signed the accords on 26 October 2021 at the 72nd [[Organization:International Astronautical Congress|International Astronautical Congress]] (IAC) in Dubai, with the head of the Polish Space Agency expressing a desire to develop indigenous Polish space technology.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=2021-10-27|title=Poland signs Artemis Accords|url=https://spacenews.com/poland-signs-artemis-accords/|access-date=2021-10-27|website=Space News|language=en}}</ref> On 9 December 2021, Mexico joined the accords.<ref name="Artemis Mexico"/>

In 2022, the number of signatories of the accords more than doubled from the previous year: Israel signed the accords on 26 January 2022,<ref>{{Cite news |last1=אייכנר |first1=איתמר |date=26 January 2022 |title=זה רשמי: ישראל הצטרפה ל"הסכמי ארטמיס" בחלל |language=he |trans-title=It's official: Israel has joined the "Artemis Accords" in space |newspaper=ynet |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/environment-science/article/h11pfyyat |access-date=}}</ref> followed by Romania,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/romania-signs-artemis-accords |title=Romania Signs Artemis Accords |work=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |date=1 March 2022 |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref> Bahrain,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/bahrain-signs-artemis-accords/ |title=Bahrain Signs Artemis Accords |work=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |date=8 March 2022 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> and Singapore<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/republic-of-singapore-signs-the-artemis-accords/ |title=Republic of Singapore Signs the Artemis Accords |work=United States Department of State |date=28 March 2022 |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref> in March; Colombia in May,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Sean |date=2022-05-10 |title=NASA Welcomes Vice President of Colombia for Artemis Accords Signing |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-vice-president-of-colombia-for-artemis-accords-signing |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=NASA}}</ref> and France on 7 June 2022, the 60th anniversary of the founding of [[Organization:CNES|its space program]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Sean |date=2022-06-07 |title=France Signs Artemis Accords as French Space Agency Marks Milestone |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/france-signs-artemis-accords-as-french-space-agency-marks-milestone |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=NASA}}</ref> (pursuant to meetings in November 2021 between U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and French President Emmanuel Macron in which he expressed France's intent to join).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Erwin |first1=Sandra |title=U.S. and France agree to expand cooperation on space issues |url=https://spacenews.com/u-s-and-france-agree-to-expand-cooperation-on-space-issues/ |access-date=12 November 2021 |website=Space News|date=10 November 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-06-07 |title=La France rejoint les " accords Artemis ", le programme de la Nasa sur l'exploration de la Lune |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/sciences/espace/nasa/la-france-rejoint-les-accords-artemis-le-programme-de-la-nasa-sur-l-exploration-de-la-lune-c704980d-6b1d-441b-b1b2-19512d3456f7 |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=Ouest-France.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-08 |title=France joins Artemis Accords |url=https://spacenews.com/france-joins-artemis-accords/ |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Grush |first=Loren |date=2022-06-10 |title=Why France signing NASA's lunar exploration pact is the most important signature yet |url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/10/23159558/nasa-artemis-accords-france-signing-moon-exploration-significance |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> Saudi Arabia signed the Accords on 14 July 2022, becoming the second Middle Eastern and Arab country to join.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Sean |date=2022-07-14 |title=Saudi Arabia Signs Artemis Accords |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/saudi-arabia-signs-artemis-accords |access-date=2022-07-16 |website=NASA}}</ref> On 13 December 2022, at the United States–Africa Leaders Summit, Rwanda and Nigeria became the first African nations to sign the Artemis Accords.<ref>{{Cite web |last=House |first=The White |date=2022-12-13 |title=STATEMENT: Strengthening the U.S.-Africa Partnership in Space |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/12/13/statement-strengthening-the-u-s-africa-partnership-in-space/ |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2022-12-13 |title=First African nations sign Artemis Accords |url=https://spacenews.com/first-african-nations-sign-artemis-accords/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 19 September 2022, representatives from signatory nations held their first meeting at the IAC to discuss the Accords and cooperation in space more broadly.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023 |title=Signatories of the U.S.-Led Artemis Accords Meet in Person for the First Time |journal=American Journal of International Law |language=en |volume=117 |issue=1 |pages=133–139 |doi=10.1017/ajil.2022.88 |s2cid=256194865 |issn=0002-9300|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2022-09-21 |title=Artemis Accords signatories hold first meeting |url=https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-signatories-hold-first-meeting/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

In May 2023, the Czech Republic<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tingley |first=Brett |date=2023-05-03 |title=Czech Republic signs Artemis Accords for 'peaceful, cooperative and sustainable' moon exploration |url=https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-czech-republic-24th-country-moon-exploration |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=McGuinness |first1=Jackie |last2=Bardan |first2=Roxana |date=2023-05-03 |editor-last=O'Shea |editor-first=Claire |title=NASA Welcomes Czech Foreign Minister for Artemis Accords Signing |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-czech-foreign-minister-for-artemis-accords-signing |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=NASA}}</ref> and Spain officially signed the Accords.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=2023-06-02 |title=Spain signs the Artemis Accords for peaceful moon exploration |url=https://www.space.com/spain-signs-artemis-accords-moon-exploration |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=Space |language=en}}</ref>

On 22 June 2023, India officially signed the Accords<ref>{{Cite web |last=O’Shea |first=Claire |date=2023-06-23 |title=NASA Welcomes India as 27th Artemis Accords Signatory |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-india-as-27th-artemis-accords-signatory |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=NASA}}</ref> during prime minister Narendra Modi's state visit to the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=House |first=The White |date=2023-06-22 |title=FACT SHEET: Republic of India Official State Visit to the United States |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Jagmeet |date=2023-06-22 |title=India joins NASA's Artemis Accords for collaborative lunar exploration |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/06/22/india-nasa-artemis-accords/ |access-date=2023-06-23 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 14 September 2023 (local time), Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR and Member of the DLR Executive Board Walther Pelzer, signed the Accords for Germany in the German embassy in Washington D.C. The ceremony was attended and witnessed as well by Space-Coordinator of the German Government, Anna Christmann, the current German ambassador in Washington, Andreas Michaelis as well as the Administrator of NASA, Bill Nelson.<ref>https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/deutschland-unterzeichnet-artemis-accords-106.html</ref>

Iceland, the Netherlands and Bulgaria joined in October/November 2023.

Angola joined in December 2023 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/world/us-welcomes-angola-signing-space-norms-pact-artemis-accords-state-dept-2023-12-04/</ref> Belgium joined in January 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-01-24 |title=Belgium signs Artemis Accords |url=https://spacenews.com/belgium-signs-artemis-accords/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

Belgium joined on January 24, 2024.<ref>[https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords/ Artemis Accords at IS Department of State]</ref>

==Accords==
Although a prerequisite for taking part in the Artemis Program, the Accords have been interpreted as codifying key principles and guidelines for exploring space generally.<ref name="Newman 2020"/> Their stated purpose is to "provide for operational implementation of important obligations contained in the [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]] and other instruments." The Accords are a single document, signed by each country that commits to the Accords' principles.  Bilateral agreements between space agencies for specific operations on the Moon and beyond are expected to reference the Accords and implement them in particular projects.

The provisions:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Artemis Accords. Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf|access-date=2020-10-19|website=NASA|language=en-US}}</ref>

* Affirm that cooperative activities under these Accords should be exclusively for peaceful purposes and in accordance with relevant international law.
* Confirm a commitment to transparency and to share scientific information, consistent with Article XI of the Outer Space Treaty.
* Call for a commitment to use reasonable efforts to utilize current interoperability standards for space-based infrastructure, and to establish standards when they do not exist or are inadequate.
* Call for a commitment to take all reasonable efforts to render necessary assistance to personnel in outer space who are in distress and according to their obligations under the Rescue and Return Agreement.
* Specify responsibility for the registration of objects in space, as required by the Registration Convention
* Call for a commitment to publicly share information on their activities and to the open sharing of scientific data. While doing so, signatories agree to coordinate with each other to provide appropriate protection for any proprietary and/or export-controlled information, and this provision does not extend to private sector operations unless conducted on behalf of a signatory.
* Include an agreement to preserve outer space heritage, which they consider to comprise historically significant human or robotic landing sites, artifacts, spacecraft, and other evidence of activity, and to contribute to multinational efforts to develop practices and rules to do so.
* Include an agreement that extraction and utilization of space resources should be conducted in a manner that complies with the Outer Space Treaty and in support of safe and sustainable activities. The signatories affirm that this does not inherently constitute national appropriation, which is prohibited by the Outer Space Treaty. They also express an intent to contribute to multilateral efforts to further develop international practices and rules on this subject.
* Reaffirm the signatories commitment to the Outer Space Treaty's provisions relating to due regard and harmful interference with other nations activities, and to provide information regarding the location and nature of space-based activities. Signatories express an intention to contribute to multilateral efforts to further develop international practices, criteria, and rules to assure this. To implement this, the Accords provide for the announcement of "safety zones", where other operations or an anomalous event could reasonably cause harmful interference. The size and scope of these safe zones should be based on the nature and environment of the operations involved and determined in a reasonable manner leveraging commonly accepted scientific and engineering principles. Within their safety zones, the signatories commit to respect the principle of free access to all areas of celestial bodies by others and all other provisions of the Outer Space Treaty.
* Include a commitment to mitigate space debris and to limit the generation of new, harmful space debris in the normal operations, break-up in operational or post-mission phases, and accidents.

==Reactions==

===Support===
The Artemis Accords have generally been welcomed for advancing international law and cooperation in space.<ref name="Newman 2020"/> Observers note that the substance of the Accords is "uncontentious" and represent a "significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law" for governing nations' space activities.<ref name="Newman 2020"/> International legal scholars also credit the agreement with helping influence space exploration in the direction of uniform standards of cooperation and peaceful use.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fidler |first=David P |date=June 2, 2020 |title=The Artemis Accords and the Next Generation of Outer Space Governance |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/artemis-accords-and-next-generation-outer-space-governance |access-date= |website=[[Organization:Council on Foreign Relations|Council on Foreign Relations]] |language=en}}</ref> The Accords have also been lauded for being the first multilateral instrument to recognize, in Section 9, the presence of human cultural heritage in outer space and the need to protect it.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanlon |first1=Michelle |last2=Martin |first2=Anne-Sophie |date=25 October 2020 |title=#SpaceWatchGL Opinion: In a Historic First, Eight Nations Formally Recognize the Need to Preserve Heritage in Space |url=https://spacewatch.global/2020/10/spacewatchgl-opinion-in-a-historic-first-eight-nations-formally-recognize-the-need-to-preserve-heritage-in-space/ |website=SpaceWatch.Global}}</ref>

With Australia signing and ratifying both the [[Astronomy:Moon Treaty|Moon Treaty]] as well as the Artemis Accords, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.<ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021">{{cite web |last1=Tronchetti |first1=Fabio |last2=Liu |first2=Hao |date=June 3, 2021 |title=Australia Between the Moon Agreement and the Artemis Accords |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ |access-date= |website=Australian Institute of International Affairs}}</ref> In this light an ''Implementation Agreement'' for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws, allowing it to be more widely accepted.<ref name="The Space Review 2020">{{cite web |last=O’Brien |first=Dennis |date=Jun 29, 2020 |title=The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 |access-date= |website=The Space Review}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=O’Brien |first=Dennis |date=2020-06-01 |title=Legal Support for the Private Sector: An Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s42423-020-00059-w |journal=Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=49–64 |doi=10.1007/s42423-020-00059-w |s2cid=257110483 |issn=2524-5260}}</ref>

=== Criticism ===
The Accords have also been criticized for allegedly being "too centered on American and commercial interests." Russia has condemned them as a "blatant attempt to create international space law that favors the United States."<ref name="pmid33033208" /> Beside possibly being an opportunity for China in light of the [[Astronomy:Wolf Amendment|Wolf Amendment]], Chinese government affiliated media has called the Accords "akin to European colonial enclosure land-taking methods."<ref name="The Diplomat 2020">{{cite web |last1=Ji |first1=Elliot |last2=Cerny |first2=Michael B |last3=Piliero |first3=Raphael J |date=17 September 2020 |title=What Does China Think About NASA's Artemis Accords? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/what-does-china-think-about-nasas-artemis-accords/ |access-date= |website=The Diplomat}}</ref> Russia and China have since reached an understanding to work together on the Chinese ''[[Astronomy:International Lunar Research Station|International Lunar Research Station]]'' concept, to serve as a potential competing option for third parties such as Pakistan and the UAE.<ref name="The Diplomat 2021">{{cite web |last=Rajagopalan |first=Rajeswari Pillai |date=7 June 2021 |title=The Artemis Accords and Global Lunar Governance |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/06/the-artemis-accords-and-global-lunar-governance/ |access-date= |website=The Diplomat}}</ref>

Two researchers writing in ''Science'' magazine's Policy Forum have called on countries to speak up about their objections, and argued that the United States should go through the United Nations treaty process in order to negotiate on space mining. They were concerned NASA's Accords, if accepted by many nations, would enable the Accords' interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty to prevail.<ref name="pmid33033208">{{cite journal | vauthors=Boley A, Byers M | title=U.S. policy puts the safe development of space at risk | journal=Science | volume=370 | issue=6513 | pages=174–175 | year=2020 | doi = 10.1126/science.abd3402 | pmid=33033208| bibcode=2020Sci...370..174B | s2cid=222211122 }}</ref> Acceptance of the Artemis Accords is a prerequisite for participation in NASA's [[Astronomy:Artemis program|Artemis lunar program]].<ref name="pmid33033208" />

Critics also contend that since the Outer Space Treaty expressly forbids nations from staking claim to another planetary body, the Accords violate space law by allowing signatories to lay claim to any resources extracted from celestial objects.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Grush|first=Loren|date=2020-10-13|title=US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/13/21507204/nasa-artemis-accords-8-countries-moon-outer-space-treaty|access-date=2020-10-30|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref> Frans von der Dunk of the [[Organization:University of Nebraska–Lincoln|University of Nebraska-Lincoln]] claims the Accords strengthen "the US interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty", namely "the basic right for individual States to allow the private sector to become engaged" in commercial activities. The weakened alternative interpretation is that "unilateral approval of commercial exploitation is ''not'' in compliance with the Outer Space Treaty, and that only an international regime, notably—presumably—including an international licensing system, could legitimise such commercial exploitation."<ref>{{Cite web|last=von der Dunk|first=Frans|date=2020-06-02|title=The Artemis Accords and the law: Is the Moon 'back in business'?|url=https://www.thebigq.org/2020/06/02/the-artemis-accords-and-the-law-is-the-moon-back-in-business/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602173016/https://www.thebigq.org/2020/06/02/the-artemis-accords-and-the-law-is-the-moon-back-in-business/ |archive-date=2020-06-02 |access-date=2020-10-30|website=Public Interest Media|language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Stirn|first=Alexander|date=2020-10-30|title=Raumfahrt: Wie die USA das Völkerrecht aushebeln könnten|url=https://www.spektrum.de/news/wie-die-usa-das-voelkerrecht-aushebeln-koennten/1787216|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101005619/https://www.spektrum.de/news/wie-die-usa-das-voelkerrecht-aushebeln-koennten/1787216 |archive-date=2020-11-01 |access-date=2020-10-30|website=www.spektrum.de|language=de}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Social:Politics of outer space|Politics of outer space]]
* [[Astronomy:Space law|Space law]]
* [[Astronomy:Moon Treaty|Moon Treaty]]
* [[Astronomy:International Lunar Research Station|International Lunar Research Station]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/ The Artemis Accords (webpage)] at [[Organization:NASA|NASA]]
* [https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf The Artemis Accords (text)] at [[Organization:NASA|NASA]]
* [https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Translated-Versions-of-the-Accords.pdf The Artemis Accords in translation (AR, ZH, FR, RU, ES)] at [[Organization:NASA|NASA]]


[[Category:Artemis program]]
[[Category:Missions to the Moon]]

{{Sourceattribution|Artemis Accords}}