View source for Earth:Photogrammetry

{{short description|Taking measurements using photography}}
[[File:Three Arch Bay Photo Taken by pilot Don Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Low altitude aerial photograph for use in photogrammetry. Location: Three Arch Bay, Laguna Beach, CA.]]
'''Photogrammetry''' is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena.<ref>[http://www.asprs.org/About-Us.html ASPRS online] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520012943/http://www.asprs.org/About-Us.html |date=May 20, 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Sede da Fazenda do Pinhal (53), N.ELAC.jpg|thumb|Photogrammetry of the headquarters of Fazenda do Pinhal, São Carlos-SP, Brazil]]
While the invention of the method is attributed to Aimé Laussedat<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lumenandforge.com/photogrammetry-history-and-modern-uses/|title=Photogrammetry history and modern uses}}</ref>, the term "photogrammetry" was coined by the Prussian architect Albrecht Meydenbauer,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cices.org/pdf/P&RSinformation.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830062535/https://www.cices.org/pdf/P%26RSinformation.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-30|title=Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing}}</ref> which appeared in his 1867 article "Die Photometrographie."<ref>Albrecht Meydenbauer: ''Die Photometrographie''. In: ''Wochenblatt des Architektenvereins zu Berlin'' Jg. 1, 1867, Nr.&nbsp;14, S.&nbsp;125–126 ([https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-btu/files/749/db186714.pdf Digitalisat]); Nr.&nbsp;15, S.&nbsp;139–140 ([https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-btu/files/750/db186715.pdf Digitalisat]); Nr.&nbsp;16, S.&nbsp;149–150 ([https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-btu/files/751/db186716.pdf Digitalisat]).</ref>
[[File:Sede da Fazenda do Pinhal (163), N.ELAC.jpg|thumb|Photogrammetry of the headquarters of Fazenda do Pinhal, São Carlos-SP, Brazil]]
There are many variants of photogrammetry.  One example is the extraction of three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data (i.e. images); for example, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the photographic [[Image plane|image plane]] can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the [[Scale (map)|scale]] of the image is known.  Another is the extraction of accurate [[Color|color]] ranges and values representing such quantities as [[Earth:Albedo|albedo]], [[Physics:Specular reflection|specular reflection]], [[Astronomy:Metallicity#Photometric colors|metallicity]], or [[Ambient occlusion|ambient occlusion]] from photographs of materials for the purposes of [[Physically based rendering|physically based rendering]].

Close-range photogrammetry refers to the collection of photography from a lesser distance than traditional aerial (or orbital) photogrammetry. Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph, or may use [[Physics:High-speed photography|high-speed photography]] and [[Earth:Remote sensing|remote sensing]] to detect, measure and record complex 2D and 3D motion fields by feeding measurements and [[Imagery analysis|imagery analysis]] into [[Computer simulation|computational models]] in an attempt to successively estimate, with increasing accuracy, the actual, 3D relative motions.

From its beginning with the [[Engineering:Stereoplotter|stereoplotter]]s used to plot [[Contour line|contour line]]s on [[Earth:Topographic map|topographic map]]s, it now has a very wide range of uses such as sonar, [[Engineering:Radar|radar]], and [[Engineering:Lidar|lidar]].

== Methods ==
[[File:Photogrammetry Wiora EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|A data model of photogrammetry<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Wiora |first=Georg |title=Optische 3D-Messtechnik : Präzise Gestaltvermessung mit einem erweiterten Streifenprojektionsverfahren |language=de |series=(''Optical 3D-Metrology : Precise Shape Measurement with an extended Fringe Projection Method'') |year=2001 |type=Doctoral dissertation |page=36 |publisher=Ruprechts-Karls-Universität |place=Heidelberg |url=http://www.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/archiv/1808 |access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref>]]
[[File:Tuure Leppänen, Reconstruction I.png|thumb|Tuure Leppänen, ''Reconstruction I'': 2D image from a 3D model built with photogrammetry methods from hundreds of ground-level photos of a japanese garden]]

Photogrammetry uses methods from many disciplines, including [[Physics:Optics|optics]] and [[Projective geometry|projective geometry]]. Digital image capturing and photogrammetric processing includes several well defined stages, which allow the generation of 2D or 3D digital models of the object as an end product.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280737273 |vauthors=Sužiedelytė-Visockienė J, Bagdžiūnaitė R, Malys N, Maliene V |title=Close-range photogrammetry enables documentation of environment-induced deformation of architectural heritage|journal=Environmental Engineering and Management Journal |volume=14 |issue= 6 |pages= 1371–1381 |year= 2015|doi=10.30638/eemj.2015.149 |doi-access= }}</ref> The data model on the right shows what type of information can go into and come out of photogrammetric methods.

The ''3D coordinates'' define the locations of object points in the [[Three-dimensional space|3D space]]. The ''image coordinates'' define the locations of the object points' images on the film or an electronic imaging device. The ''exterior orientation''<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.racurs.ru/www_download/articles/i_jarve_en.pdf|author1=Ina Jarve |author2=Natalja Liba |title=The Effect of Various Principles of External Orientation on the Overall Triangulation Accuracy |journal=Technologijos Mokslai |location=Estonia |issue=86 |year=2010 |pages=59–64|access-date=2016-04-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422115444/http://www.racurs.ru/www_download/articles/i_jarve_en.pdf|archive-date=2016-04-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> of a camera defines its location in space and its view direction. The ''inner orientation'' defines the geometric parameters of the imaging process. This is primarily the focal length of the lens, but can also include the description of lens distortions. Further ''additional observations'' play an important role: With ''scale bars'', basically a known distance of two points in space, or known ''fix points'', the connection to the basic measuring units is created.

Each of the four main variables can be an ''input'' or an ''output'' of a photogrammetric method.
 
Algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the [[Least squares|squares of errors]] over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is known as [[Bundle adjustment|bundle adjustment]] and is often performed using the [[Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm]].

=== Stereophotogrammetry ===
{{main|3D reconstruction from multiple images}}
<!-- WP:NFCC violation: [[File:Rapid3dmapping.jpg|thumb|300px|The stereophotogrammetry technology [[Rapid 3D Mapping|Rapid 3D Mapping]] applied on the Royal Castle of Sweden.]] -->

A special case, called '''stereophotogrammetry''', involves estimating the three-dimensional [[Coordinate system|coordinates]] of points on an object employing measurements made in two or more photographic images taken from different positions (see [[Stereoscopy|stereoscopy]]). Common points are identified on each image. A line of sight (or ray) can be constructed from the camera location to the point on the object.  It is the intersection of these rays ([[Triangulation (computer vision)|triangulation]]) that determines the three-dimensional location of the point. More sophisticated [[Algorithm|algorithm]]s can exploit other information about the scene that is known ''[[Philosophy:A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', for example [[Symmetry|symmetries]], in some cases allowing reconstructions of 3D coordinates from only one camera position. Stereophotogrammetry is emerging as a robust non-contacting measurement technique to determine dynamic characteristics and mode shapes of non-rotating<ref>{{cite journal|title=Accuracy analysis of measuring close-range image points using manual and stereo modes|first=Jūratė|last=Sužiedelytė-Visockienė|date=1 March 2013|journal=Geodesy and Cartography|volume=39|issue=1|pages=18–22|doi=10.3846/20296991.2013.786881|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="spie-turbine">{{cite conference|url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=1315174|title=Dynamic characteristics of a wind turbine blade using 3D digital image correlation|last1=Baqersad|first1=Javad|last2=Carr|first2=Jennifer|last3=Lundstrom|first3=Troy|date=April 26, 2012|conference=[[Physics:Proceedings of SPIE|Proceedings of SPIE]]|volume=8348|display-authors=2}}</ref> and rotating structures.<ref>{{cite book|title=Topics in Modal Analysis II, Volume 6|url=https://archive.org/details/topicsmodalanaly2012rhee|url-access=limited|first1=Troy|last1=Lundstrom|first2=Javad|last2=Baqersad|first3=Christopher|last3=Niezrecki|first4=Peter|last4=Avitabile|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Springer, New York, NY|pages=[https://archive.org/details/topicsmodalanaly2012rhee/page/n267 269]–275|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-2419-2_26|chapter = Using High-Speed Stereophotogrammetry Techniques to Extract Shape Information from Wind Turbine/Rotor Operating Data|series = Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series|isbn = 978-1-4614-2418-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Special Topics in Structural Dynamics, Volume 6|url=https://archive.org/details/specialtopicsstr2013koiz|url-access=limited|first1=Troy|last1=Lundstrom|first2=Javad|last2=Baqersad|first3=Christopher|last3=Niezrecki|date=1 January 2013|publisher=Springer, New York, NY|pages=[https://archive.org/details/specialtopicsstr2013koiz/page/n388 401]–410|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6546-1_44|chapter = Using High-Speed Stereophotogrammetry to Collect Operating Data on a Robinson R44 Helicopter|series = Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series|isbn = 978-1-4614-6545-4}}</ref> The collection of images for the purpose of creating photogrammetric models can be called more properly, polyoscopy, after Pierre Seguin <ref>Robert-Houdin, Jean-Eugene (1885) _[Magie et Physique Amusante](https://archive.org/details/magieetphysique00hougoog/page/n167/mode/2up "iarchive:magieetphysique00hougoog/page/n167/mode/2up")._ Paris: Calmann Levy p. 112</ref>

== Integration==

Photogrammetric data can be complemented with range data from other techniques.  Photogrammetry is more accurate in the x and y direction while range data are generally more accurate in the z direction {{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}.  This range data can be supplied by techniques like LiDAR, laser scanners (using time of flight, triangulation or interferometry), white-light digitizers and any other technique that scans an area and returns x, y, z coordinates for multiple discrete points (commonly called "point clouds").  Photos can clearly define the edges of buildings when the point cloud footprint can not.  It is beneficial to incorporate the advantages of both systems and integrate them to create a better product.

A 3D visualization can be created by georeferencing the aerial photos<ref>[https://37.128.144.2:8443/sitepreview/http/magazine.cmedia.nl/GEO-Informatics_4_2014/index.html#/32/ A. Sechin. Digital Photogrammetric Systems: Trends and Developments. GeoInformatics. #4, 2014, pp. 32-34] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421184605/https://37.128.144.2:8443/sitepreview/http/magazine.cmedia.nl/GEO-Informatics_4_2014/index.html#/32/ |date=2016-04-21 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 3348797 | pmid=22574014 | doi=10.3390/s90402320 | volume=9 | issue=4 | title=An integrated photogrammetric and spatial database management system for producing fully structured data using aerial and remote sensing images | journal= Sensors| pages=2320–33 | last1 = Ahmadi | first1 = FF | last2 = Ebadi | first2 = H| year=2009 | bibcode=2009Senso...9.2320A | doi-access=free }}</ref> and LiDAR data in the same reference frame, [[Image rectification|orthorectifying]] the aerial photos, and then draping the orthorectified images on top of the LiDAR grid. It is also possible to create digital terrain models and thus 3D visualisations using pairs (or multiples) of aerial photographs or satellite (e.g. SPOT satellite imagery). Techniques such as adaptive least squares stereo matching are then used to produce a dense array of correspondences which are transformed through a camera model to produce a dense array of x, y, z data which can be used to produce digital terrain model and [[Earth:Orthophoto|orthoimage]] products. Systems which use these techniques, e.g. the ITG system, were developed in the 1980s and 1990s but have since been supplanted by LiDAR and radar-based approaches, although these techniques may still be useful in deriving elevation models from old aerial photographs or satellite images.

== Applications ==
[[File:Video of a 3d model of Horatio Nelson bust in Monmouth Museum, Wales, produced using photogrammetry.ogv|thumb|right|Video of a 3D model of Horatio Nelson bust in Monmouth Museum, produced using photogrammetry]]
[[File:Gibraltar 1 3d model, created using photogrammetry.ogg|thumb|right|[[Biology:Gibraltar 1|Gibraltar 1]] Neanderthal skull 3D wireframe model, created with 123d Catch]]
Photogrammetry is used in fields such as [[Earth:Topographic map|topographic map]]ping, architecture, [[Engineering:Filmmaking|filmmaking]], [[Engineering:Engineering|engineering]], manufacturing, [[Quality control|quality control]], [[Social:Police|police]] investigation, [[Social:Cultural heritage|cultural heritage]], and [[Earth:Geology|geology]]. [[Social:Aerial archaeology|Archaeologists]] use it to quickly produce plans of large or complex sites, and [[Meteorologist|meteorologist]]s use it to determine the wind speed of [[Earth:Tornado|tornado]]es when objective weather data cannot be obtained.

[[File:Future-cities-best-76.jpg|thumb|Photograph of person using controller to explore a 3D photogrammetry experience, Future Cities by DERIVE, recreating Tokyo]]

It is also used to combine [[Engineering:Live action|live action]] with [[Computer-generated imagery|computer-generated imagery]] in movies [[Engineering:Post-production|post-production]]; ''The Matrix'' is a good example of the use of photogrammetry in film (details are given in the DVD extras). Photogrammetry was used extensively to create photorealistic environmental assets for video games including ''[[Software:The Vanishing of Ethan Carter|The Vanishing of Ethan Carter]]'' as well as [[Company:EA DICE|EA DICE]]'s ''[[Software:Star Wars Battlefront (2015 video game)|Star Wars Battlefront]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://starwars.ea.com/starwars/battlefront/news/how-we-used-photogrammetry|title=How we used Photogrammetry to Capture Every Last Detail for Star Wars™ Battlefront™|date=19 May 2015}}</ref> The main character of the game ''[[Software:Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice|Hellblade]]'' was derived from photogrammetric motion-capture models taken of actress Melina Juergens.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/08/08/ninja-theory-hellblade-motion-capture-demo-video/|title=The real-time motion capture behind 'Hellblade'|website=engadget.com}}</ref>

Photogrammetry is also commonly employed in collision engineering, especially with automobiles. When litigation for a collision occurs and engineers need to determine the exact deformation present in the vehicle, it is common for several years to have passed and the only evidence that remains is crash scene photographs taken by the police. Photogrammetry is used to determine how much the car in question was deformed, which relates to the amount of energy required to produce that deformation. The energy can then be used to determine important information about the crash (such as the velocity at time of impact).

===Mapping===
Photomapping is the process of making a map with "cartographic enhancements"<ref name=Petrie1977_50>Petrie (1977: 50)</ref> that have been drawn from a photomosaic<ref name=Petrie1977_49>Petrie (1977: 49)</ref> that is "a composite photographic image of the ground," or more precisely, as a controlled photomosaic where "individual photographs are rectified for tilt and brought to a common scale (at least at certain control points)."

Rectification of imagery is generally achieved by "fitting the projected images of each photograph to a set of four control points whose positions have been derived from an existing map or from ground measurements. When these rectified, scaled photographs are positioned on a grid of control points, a good correspondence can be achieved between them through skillful trimming and fitting and the use of the areas around the principal point where the relief displacements (which cannot be removed) are at a minimum."<ref name=Petrie1977_50>Petrie (1977: 50)</ref>

"It is quite reasonable to conclude that some form of photomap will become the standard general map of the future."<ref name=Robinson_et_al1977_10>Robinson et al. (1977:10)</ref> They go on to suggest{{who|date=June 2019}} that, "photomapping would appear to be the only way to take reasonable advantage" of future data sources like high altitude aircraft and satellite imagery.

===Archaeology===
[[File:Jiska-Photomapping-Drawing.jpg|thumb|Using a pentop computer to photomap an archaeological excavation in the field]]
Demonstrating the link between orthophotomapping and [[Earth:Archaeology|archaeology]],<ref name=Estes_et_al1977_10>Estes et al. (1977)</ref> historic [[Earth:Aerial photography|airphotos]] photos were used to aid in developing a reconstruction of the Ventura mission that guided excavations of the structure's walls.

[[File:Pteryx UAV - wiki.jpg|thumb|upright|Pteryx UAV, a civilian UAV for aerial photography and photomapping with roll-stabilised camera head]]

Overhead photography has been widely applied for mapping surface remains and excavation exposures at archaeological sites. Suggested platforms for capturing these photographs has included: War Balloons from World War I;<ref name=Capper_1907>Capper (1907)</ref> rubber meteorological balloons;<ref name=Guy_1932>Guy (1932)</ref> [[Kite aerial photography|kites]];<ref name=Guy_1932>Guy (1932)</ref><ref name=Bascom_1941>Bascom (1941)</ref> wooden platforms, metal frameworks, constructed over an excavation exposure;<ref name=Guy_1932>Guy (1932)</ref> ladders both alone and held together with poles or planks; three legged ladders; single and multi-section poles;<ref name=Schwartz_1964>Schwartz (1964)</ref><ref name=Wiltshire_1967>Wiltshire (1967)</ref> bipods;<ref name=Kriegler_1928>Kriegler (1928)</ref><ref name=Hampl_1957>Hampl (1957)</ref><ref name=Whittlesey_1966>Whittlesey (1966)</ref><ref name=Fant_Loy_1972>Fant and Loy (1972)</ref> tripods;<ref name=Straffin_1971>Straffin (1971)</ref> tetrapods,<ref name=Simpson_Cooke1967>Simpson and Cooke (1967)</ref><ref name=Hume_1969>Hume (1969)</ref> and aerial bucket trucks ("cherry pickers").<ref name="Sterud and Pratt 1975">{{Cite journal |last=Sterud |first=Eugene L. |last2=Pratt |first2=Peter P. |date=1975 |title=Archaeological Intra-Site Recording with Photography |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/529625 |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=2 |issue=1/2 |pages=151 |doi=10.2307/529625 |issn=0093-4690}}</ref>

Handheld, near-nadir, overhead digital photographs have been used with geographic information systems ([[Geographic information system|GIS]]) to record excavation exposures.<ref name=craig2000>Craig (2000)</ref><ref name=craig2002>Craig (2002)</ref><ref name=craig_aldenderfer2003>Craig and Aldenderfer (2003)</ref><ref name=Craig2005>Craig (2005)</ref><ref name=craig_etal2006>Craig et al. (2006)</ref>

Photogrammetry is increasingly being used in maritime archaeology because of the relative ease of mapping sites compared to traditional methods, allowing the creation of 3D maps which can be rendered in [[Virtual reality|virtual reality]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maritimearchaeology.com/information/technology/photogrammetry/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119053810/http://www.maritimearchaeology.com/information/technology/photogrammetry/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-19|title=Photogrammetry {{!}} Maritime Archaeology|date=2019-01-19|access-date=2019-01-19}}</ref>

=== 3D modeling ===
A somewhat similar application is the scanning of objects to automatically make 3D models of them. Since photogrammetry relies on images, there are physical limitations when those images are of an object that has dark, shiny or clear surfaces. In those cases, the produced model often still contains gaps, so additional cleanup with software like [[Software:MeshLab|MeshLab]], netfabb or MeshMixer is often still necessary.<ref>MAKE:3D printing by Anna Kaziunas France</ref> Alternatively, spray painting such objects with matte finish can remove any transparent or shiny qualities.

[[Software:Google Earth|Google Earth]] uses photogrammetry to create 3D imagery.<ref>Gopal Shah, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=suo_aUTUpps Google Earth's Incredible 3D Imagery, Explained], 2017-04-18</ref>

There is also a project called [[Social:Rekrei|Rekrei]] that uses photogrammetry to make 3D models of lost/stolen/broken artifacts that are then posted online.

== Software ==
There exist many software packages for photogrammetry; see [[Software:Comparison of photogrammetry software|comparison of photogrammetry software]].

[[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple]] introduced a photogrammetry [[API]] called Object Capture for [[Software:MacOS Monterey|macOS Monterey]] at the 2021 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple's RealityKit 2 allows developers to create 3D models for AR using iPhone photos |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2021/06/08/apples-realitykit-2-allows-developers-to-create-3d-models-for-ar-using-iphone-photos/ |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=TechCrunch |date=8 June 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref> In order to use the API, a MacBook running macOS Monterey and a set of captured digital images are required.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Espósito |first=Filipe |date=2021-06-09 |title=Hands-on: macOS 12 brings new 'Object Capture' API for creating 3D models using iPhone camera |url=https://9to5mac.com/2021/06/09/hands-on-macos-12-brings-new-object-capture-api-for-creating-3d-models-using-iphone-camera/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=9to5Mac |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{main cat|Earth:Photogrammetry}}
{{columns-list|
*{{annotated link|3D data acquisition and object reconstruction}}
*{{annotated link|3D reconstruction from multiple images}}
*{{annotated link|Social:Aerial survey}}
*{{annotated link|Organization:American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing}}
*{{annotated link|Collinearity equation}}
*{{annotated link|Computer vision}}
*{{annotated link|Digital image correlation and tracking}}
*{{annotated link|Epipolar geometry}}
*{{annotated link|Geoinformatics}}
*{{annotated link|Engineering:Geomatics engineering}}
*{{annotated link|Geographic information system}}
*{{annotated link|Organization:International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing}}
*{{annotated link|Mobile mapping}}
* [[Neural radiance field]]
*{{annotated link|Physics:Periscope}}
*{{annotated link|Engineering:Rangefinder}}
*{{annotated link|Engineering:Stereoplotter}}
*{{annotated link|Simultaneous localization and mapping}}
*{{annotated link|Structure from motion}}
*{{annotated link|Engineering:Surveying}}
*{{annotated link|Engineering:Unmanned aerial photogrammetric survey}}
*{{annotated link|Videogrammetry}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

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== External links ==
* [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090227061949/http://www.ferris.edu/faculty/burtchr/sure340/notes/History.pdf History of Photogrammetry]
* [http://culturalheritageimaging.org/Technologies/Photogrammetry/ Photogrammetry overview on the Cultural Heritage Imaging web site]


[[Category:Geodesy]]

{{Sourceattribution|Photogrammetry}}