View source for Open-source intelligence

{{Short description|Data collected from publicly available sources to be used in an intelligence context}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=December 2010}}
{{Update | date=April 2017}}
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{{Intelligence}}

'''Open source intelligence''' ('''OSINT''') is the collection and analysis of data gathered from open sources (overt sources and publicly available information) to produce actionable intelligence. OSINT is primarily used in [[Social:National security|national security]], law enforcement, and [[Finance:Competitive intelligence|business intelligence]] functions and is of value to analysts who use non-sensitive intelligence in answering classified, unclassified, or [[Social:Trade secret|proprietary intelligence]] requirements across the previous intelligence disciplines.<ref name="row-2022">{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Leo |title=Amateur open source researchers went viral unpacking the war in Ukraine |url=https://restofworld.org/2022/osint-viral-ukraine/ |website=Rest of World |access-date=8 March 2022 |date=March 7, 2022}}</ref>

== Categories ==
OSINT sources can be divided up into six different categories of information flow:<ref>{{Cite book|title=The US Intelligence Community |isbn=978-0813349183 |last1=Richelson |first1=Jeffrey |year=2016 |publisher=Avalon }}</ref>

*Media: print newspapers, magazines, [[Social:Radio|radio]], and [[Engineering:Television|television]] from across and between countries.
*[[Internet]]: online publications, [[HandWiki:Blogs|blogs]], [[Social:Discussion group|discussion group]]s, citizen media (i.e. – cell phone [[Engineering:Digital video|videos]], and user created content), [[Company:YouTube|YouTube]], and other [[Social:Social media|social media]] websites (i.e. – [[Company:Facebook|Facebook]], [[Company:Twitter|Twitter]], [[Software:Instagram|<span lang="vi">Instagram</span>]], etc.). This source also outpaces a variety of other sources due to its timeliness and ease of access.
*Public government data: public government reports, budgets, hearings, telephone directories, press conferences, websites, and speeches. Although this source comes from an official source they are publicly accessible and may be used openly and freely.
*Professional and academic publications: information acquired from [[Academic journal|journal]]s, conferences, symposia, [[Academic publishing|academic papers]], dissertations, and theses.
*Commercial data: [[Astronomy:Satellite imagery|commercial imagery]], financial and industrial assessments, and databases.
*[[Grey literature]]: technical reports, [[Preprint|preprint]]s, patents, working papers, business documents, unpublished works, and newsletters.

OSINT is distinguished from research in that it applies the process of intelligence to create tailored knowledge supportive of a specific decision by a specific individual or group.<ref>{{cite web |title=Spy Agencies Turn to Newspapers, NPR, and Wikipedia for Information: The intelligence community is learning to value 'open-source' information |url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/national/2008/09/12/spy-agencies-turn-to-newspapers-npr-and-wikipedia-for-information.html |access-date=2008-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023193900/http://www.usnews.com/news/national/articles/2008/09/12/spy-agencies-turn-to-newspapers-npr-and-wikipedia-for-information |archive-date=2012-10-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== OSINT collection methodologies ==
Collecting open-source intelligence is achieved in a variety of different ways,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leos |first=Devan |date=2023-02-28 |title=Thinking Like a Spy: How Open Source Intelligence Can Give You a Competitive Advantage |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/growing-a-business/thinking-like-a-spy-how-open-source-intelligence-can-give/444634 |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Entrepreneur |language=en}}</ref> such as:

* [[Social:Social media|Social Media]] Intelligence, which is acquired from viewing or observing a subject's online social profile activity.
* [[Search engine]] data mining or scraping.
* Public records checking.
* Information matching and verification from [[Data broker|data broker]] services.

==Definition==
OSINT, broadly defined, involves gathering and analyzing publicly accessible information to produce actionable insights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is OSINT (Open-Source Intelligence?) {{!}} SANS Institute |url=https://www.sans.org/blog/what-is-open-source-intelligence/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=[[Organization:SANS Institute|SANS Institute]]}}</ref>

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security defines OSINT as intelligence derived from publicly available information, collected and disseminated promptly to address specific intelligence needs.<ref>''[https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Ethical%20Frameworks%20in%20OSINT%20Final.pdf Ethical Frameworks in Open Source Intelligence]''. (Report) (2022). Part of the 2022 Public Private Partnership Analytic Exchange Program. Washington, DC: US Department of Homeland Security.</ref>

NATO describes OSINT as intelligence obtained from publicly available information and other unclassified data with limited public distribution or access.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/NATOOSINTHandbookV1.2/mode/2up |title=NATO OSINT Handbook V 1.2 |date=2001-11-01 |publisher=NATO}}</ref>

The [[Social:European Union|European Union]] defines OSINT as the collecting and analyzing information from open sources to generate actionable intelligence, supporting areas like national security, law enforcement, and business intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-02 |title=OSINT: Open-source intelligence |url=https://data.europa.eu/en/publications/datastories/what-osint-open-source-intelligence |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=[[Social:European Union|European Union]] Data}}</ref>

The United Nations has also recognized OSINT’s potential, noting its value in monitoring member states’ compliance with international regulations across various sectors, including public health and human rights.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bochert |first=Florian |date=2021-11-19 |title=OSINT – The Untapped Treasure Trove of United Nations Organizations |url=https://hir.harvard.edu/osint-the-untapped-treasure-trove-of-united-nations-organizations/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=Harvard International Review |language=en}}</ref>

In the [[Finance:Private sector|private sector]], companies like [[Company:IBM|IBM]] define OSINT as the process of gathering and analyzing publicly available information to assess threats, inform decisions, or answer specific questions. Similarly, cybersecurity firms such as [[Company:CrowdStrike|CrowdStrike]] describe OSINT as the act of collecting and analyzing publicly available data for intelligence purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baker |first=Kurt |date=2025-01-17 |title=What is OSINT Open Source Intelligence? {{!}} CrowdStrike |url=https://www.crowdstrike.com/en-us/cybersecurity-101/threat-intelligence/open-source-intelligence-osint/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=Crowdstrike |language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:911 commission seal.svg|200px|thumb|right|Seal of the 9/11 Commission]]
OSINT practices have been documented as early as the mid-19th century in the United States and early 20th century in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Block |first=Ludo |date=2023 |title=The long history of OSINT |journal=Journal of Intelligence History |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=95–109 |language=en |doi=10.1080/16161262.2023.2224091 |issn=1616-1262|doi-access=free |hdl=1887/3731669 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

OSINT in the [[United States]] traces its origins to the 1941 creation of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS), an agency responsible for the monitoring of foreign broadcasts. An example of their work was the correlation of changes in the price of oranges in Paris with successful bombings of railway bridges during [[Social:World War II|World War II]].<ref name="BornnMil">{{cite web|last1=Bornn|first1=D Marshall|title=Service members, civilians learn to harness power of 'Open Source' information|url=https://www.army.mil/article/94007/Service_members__civilians_learn_to_harness_power_of__Open_Source__information|website=www.army.mil|access-date=14 May 2017|language=en|date=9 Jan 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209101817/https://www.army.mil/article/94007/Service_members__civilians_learn_to_harness_power_of__Open_Source__information|archive-date=9 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Aspin-Brown Commission stated in 1996 that US access to open sources was "severely deficient" and that this should be a "top priority" for both funding and DCI attention.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Five Disciplines of Intelligence Collection|last1=Lowenthal|first1=Mark|last2=Clark|first2=Robert|publisher=CQ Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1483381114|page=18}}</ref>

In July 2004, following the [[Religion:September 11 attacks|September 11 attacks]], the 9/11 Commission recommended the creation of an open-source intelligence agency.<ref>See page 413 of the [http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_FM.pdf 9-11 Commission Report (pdf)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705012031/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_FM.pdf |date=2007-07-05 }}.</ref> In March 2005, the Iraq Intelligence Commission recommended<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=McLaughlin|first=Michael|date=June 2012|title=Using open source intelligence for cybersecurity intelligence|language=en-GB|work=ComputerWeekly.com|url=https://www.computerweekly.com/tip/Using-open-source-intelligence-software-for-cybersecurity-intelligence|url-status=live|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629155103/https://www.computerweekly.com/tip/Using-open-source-intelligence-software-for-cybersecurity-intelligence|archive-date=2018-06-29}}</ref> the creation of an open-source directorate at the CIA.

Following these recommendations, in November 2005 the Director of National Intelligence announced the creation of the DNI [[Social:Open Source Center|Open Source Center]]. The Center was established to collect information available from "the Internet, databases, press, radio, television, video, geospatial data, photos and commercial imagery."<ref>Office of the Director of National Intelligence. "[http://www.dni.gov/press_releases/20051108_release.htm ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623072458/http://dni.gov/press_releases/20051108_release.htm |date=2006-06-23 }}". Press release, 8 November 2005.</ref> In addition to collecting openly available information, it would train analysts to make better use of this information. The center absorbed the CIA's previously existing Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), originally established in 1941, with FBIS head Douglas Naquin named as director of the center.<ref>Ensor, David. "[http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/11/08/sr.tues/ The Situation Report: Open source intelligence center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325142701/http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/11/08/sr.tues/ |date=2007-03-25 }}". ''CNN'', 8 November 2005.</ref> Then, following the events of [[Religion:September 11 attacks|9/11]] the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act merged FBIS and other research elements into the Office of the Director of National Intelligence creating the Open Source Enterprise.

Furthermore, the private sector has invested in tools which aid in OSINT collection and analysis. Specifically, In-Q-Tel, a Central Intelligence Agency supported venture capital firm in Arlington, VA assisted companies develop web-monitoring and predictive analysis tools.

In December 2005, the Director of National Intelligence appointed Eliot A. Jardines as the Assistant Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Open Source to serve as the Intelligence Community's senior intelligence officer for open source and to provide strategy, guidance and oversight for the National Open Source Enterprise.<ref>Office of the Director of National Intelligence "[http://www.dni.gov/press_releases/20051207_release.htm ODNI Senior Leadership Announcement] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623072305/http://dni.gov/press_releases/20051207_release.htm |date=2006-06-23 }}". Press release, 7 December 2005.</ref> Mr. Jardines has established the National Open Source Enterprise<ref>[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/NationalOpenSourceEnterprise.pdf "National Open Source Entreprise Vision Statement"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928150640/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/NationalOpenSourceEnterprise.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }} May 2006</ref> and authored intelligence community directive 301. In 2008, Mr. Jardines returned to the private sector and was succeeded by Dan Butler who is ADDNI/OS<ref>[http://www.dniopensource.org/Conference/Agenda.aspx DNI Open Source Conference 2008 "Decision Advantage" agenda, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, July 2008.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417020406/http://www.dniopensource.org/Conference/Agenda.aspx |date=2010-04-17 }}</ref> and previously Mr. Jardines' Senior Advisor for Policy.<ref>[http://www.dniopensource2007.com/sessions.cfm DNI Open Source Conference 2007 "Expanding the Horizons" agenda, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, July 2007.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801081412/http://www.dniopensource2007.com/sessions.cfm |date=2008-08-01 }}</ref>

=== Tools ===
alt=<nowiki>Systematic Software Engineering uses open source intelligence, compiled by [[Janes Information Services, as part of its intelligence platform.</nowiki>|thumb|Open source intelligence may be ingested to battle management systems such as CPCE by [[Company:Systematic Software Engineering|Systematic]], which uses an open source feed from Janes Information Services.]]
The web browser is a powerful OSINT tool that provides access to numerous websites and both open source and proprietary software tools that are either purpose-built for open source information collection or can be exploited for either gathering open source information or to facilitate analysis and validation to provide intelligence. A cottage industry of both for-profit and not-for-profit investigative and educational groups such as Bellingcat, IntelTechniques, SANS, Liferaft and others, offer indices, books, podcasts and video training materials on OSINT tools and techniques. Books such as Michael Bazzell's ''Open Source Intelligence Techniques'' serve as indices to resources across multiple domains but according the author, due to the rapidly changing information landscape, some tools and techniques change or become obsolete frequently, hence it is imperative for OSINT researchers to study, train and survey the landscape of source material regularly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Books by Michael Bazzell |url=https://inteltechniques.com/book1.html |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=inteltechniques.com}}</ref> A guide by Ryan Fedasiuk, an analyst at the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, lists six tools open-source analysts can use to stay safe and utilize operational security ([[Operations security|OPSEC]]) when conducting online investigations. These include VPNs, cached webpages, digital archive services, URL and file scanners, browser sandbox applications, and [[Antivirus software|antivirus software]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fedasiuk |first=Ryan |date=2022-04-06 |title=Into the Jungle: Best Practices for Open-Source Researchers |url=https://cset.georgetown.edu/article/into-the-jungle-best-practices-for-open-source-researchers/ |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Center for Security and Emerging Technology |language=en-US}}</ref>

Numerous lists of aggregated OSINT content are available on the web. The OSINT Framework contains over 30 primary categories of tools and is maintained as an open source project on [[GitHub]].<ref>{{Citation |title=OSINT Framework |date=2022-05-02 |url=https://github.com/lockfale/OSINT-Framework |publisher=lockFALE |access-date=2022-05-02}}</ref>

== Risks for practitioners ==
A main hindrance to practical OSINT is the volume of information it has to deal with [[Information explosion|information explosion]]. The amount of data being distributed increases at a rate that it becomes difficult to evaluate sources in intelligence analysis. To a small degree the work has sometimes been done by amateur crowd-sourcing.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Bellingcat's Eliot Higgins Explains Why Ukraine Is Winning the Information War |url=https://time.com/6155869/bellingcat-eliot-higgins-ukraine-open-source-intelligence/ |access-date=2022-04-13 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref>

Private individuals illegally collecting data for a foreign military or intelligence agency is considered [[Social:Espionage|espionage]] in most countries. Espionage that is not treason (e.g. betraying one's country of citizenship) has been a tool of statecraft since ancient times.<ref>[[Biography:Sun Tzu|Sun Tzu]] (Warring States period), ''The Art of War'', Chapter 13: "Hostile armies may face each other for years, striving for the victory which is decided in a single day. This being so, to remain in ignorance of the enemy's condition simply because one grudges the outlay of 2 hundred ounces of silver in honors and emoluments, is the height of inhumanity."</ref>

==Professional associations and certifications==
McAfee Institute offers several government-recognized certification programs in open-source intelligence (OSINT) and related investigative disciplines. The ''Certified in Open Source Intelligence (C|OSINT)'' program provides structured training in the collection, verification, and analysis of publicly available information, aligning with recognized standards for intelligence and law enforcement professionals.

McAfee Institute’s certification programs are approved by the Missouri Department of Higher Education and Workforce Development (MDHEWD),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} dhewd.mo.gov |url=https://dhewd.mo.gov/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=dhewd.mo.gov}}</ref> listed in the National Initiative for Cybersecurity Careers and Studies (NICCS) training catalog maintained by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, and recognized by the U.S. Department of Defense Credentialing Opportunities On-Line (COOL) <ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.cool.osd.mil/}}</ref>program for all military branches.

According to the McAfee Institute, the C|OSINT certification validates professional competency in conducting lawful and ethical online investigations, emphasizing intelligence tradecraft, digital profiling, and open-source data analysis. Graduates receive lifetime access to updated course materials and instructor support.

The OSINT Foundation is a professional association for OSINT practitioners in the United States Intelligence Community.<ref>{{Citation |title=New OSINT foundation aims to 'professionalize' open source discipline across spy agencies |url=https://federalnewsnetwork.com/inside-ic/2022/07/new-osint-foundation-aims-to-professionalize-open-source-discipline-across-spy-agencies/ |date=2022-07-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> It is open to U.S. Citizens and seeks to raise the prominence of the open-source intelligence discipline.<ref>{{Citation |title=New Group to Promote Open-Source Intelligence, Seen as Vital in Ukraine War | newspaper=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-group-to-promote-open-source-intelligence-seen-as-vital-in-ukraine-war-11658926800?st=q5j3a3ymqekavuj&reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink |date=2022-07-27 |language=en-US | last1=Volz | first1=Dustin }}</ref>

OSMOSIS (an association for OSINT professionals) provides courses and conferences that lead to the designation of being Open-Source Certified (OSC). OSMOSIS is an offshoot of the Hetherington Group, a private investigation and corporate & market intelligence group. According to the OSC, its goal is to "help standardize our profession and demonstrate that our members are Legal, Ethical, and Competent practitioners of investigating and analyzing Publicly Available Information." Further they state that, "To obtain the OSC designation, practitioners must meet certain requirements to demonstrate dedication to their craft and pass a 100-question exam."<ref>{{Cite web |last=OSMOSIS |date=2025-02-06 |title=0SMOSIS Open-Source Certified |url=https://osmosisinstitute.org/osc/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=OSMOSIS - An Association for OSINT Professionals}}</ref>

The company IntelTechniques offers online and live training that can lead to the Open Source Intelligence Professional Certification (OSIP) and/or help individual practitioners develop and formalize their skills, sans certification. Their certification program "provides participants with an opportunity to work through a real-world scenario and demonstrate that they can produce an intelligence product that meets a high professional standard."<ref>{{Cite web |last=IntelTechniques |date=2025-02-06 |title=Open Source Intelligence Professional Certification |url=https://inteltechniques.com/training-osip.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=IntelTechniques}}</ref> In addition to their training program, IntelTechniques.com offers a community that serves supports those seeking the OSIP certificiation, but is also open to practitioners who enroll in the training program itself without the intention of seeking certificiation. This community facilitates an exchange of information about best practices, the training itself and tradecraft & methodology in a moderated environment.

Other organizations including Bellingcat, offer training as well other options for OSINT practitioners to associate and exchange information on OSINT best practices and issues.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{annotated link|Doxing}}
*{{annotated link|Investigative Data Warehouse}}
*{{annotated link|Open data}}
*{{annotated link|Social:Open Source Center}}
*{{annotated link|Social:Social cloud computing}}
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
*[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20060418-110124-3694r.htm WashTimes.com], Washington Times – CIA mines 'rich' content from blogs, 19 April 2006
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081201184220/http://www.gcn.com/print/25_6/40152-1.html GCN.com], Government Computer News – Intelligence units mine the benefits of public sources 20 March 2006
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080310024429/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0IBS/is_4_31/ai_n16419797 FindAcricles.com], Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin October–December, 2005 by Barbara G. Fast
*[https://fas.org/irp/congress/2005_hr/062105jardines.pdf FAS.org], Congressional Testimony on OSINT and Homeland Security 21 June 2005
*[https://www.forbes.com/2008/11/21/maltego-data-mining-identity08-tech-cz-tb_1121maltego.html Forbes.com], When Everyone Can Mine Your Data by Taylor Buley, 11.21.08]
* {{cite web | last=Thompson | first=Clive | title=Open-Source Spying | website=The New York Times | date=2006-12-03 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/magazine/03intelligence.html | access-date=2018-05-29}}
* {{cite web | title=Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) | website=RIS Open Source Intelligence | date=2018-05-29 | url=http://arnoreuser.com/ | ref={{sfnref | RIS Open Source Intelligence | 2018}} | access-date=2018-05-29}}
* {{cite web | title=The Intelligence Network : I n t r o d u c t i o n | website=intellnet.org | date=2008-05-09 | url=http://www.intellnet.org/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509085418/http://www.intellnet.org/ | archive-date=2008-05-09 | url-status=unfit | ref={{sfnref | intellnet.org | 2008}} | access-date=2018-05-29}}
 
== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |author=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |author2=University of California, Berkeley Human Rights Center |title=Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open Source Investigations A Practical Guide on the Effective Use of Digital Open Source Information in Investigating Violations of International Criminal, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2024-01/OHCHR_BerkeleyProtocol.pdf |publication-place=New York, Geneva |publisher=UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights; Human Rights Center, UC Berkeley School of Law |year=2022 |isbn=978-92-1-154233-2 |oclc=1334608062}}

===Scientific publications===
* Deneuville, A., Hernández López, G. & Rasmi, J. (Eds.) 'Contre-enquêtes en sources ouvertes'. ''Multitudes'', 89, 2022.
* Arthur S. Hulnick: '[https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195375886.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195375886-e-0014 The Dilemma of Open Source Intelligence: Is OSINT Really Intelligence?]', pages 229–241, The Oxford Handbook of National Security Intelligence, 2010
* [http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=cewces_papers Cody Burke: 'Freeing knowledge, telling secrets: Open source intelligence and development', Bond University, May 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817134042/http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=cewces_papers |date=2016-08-17 }}
* [http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?id=122008 Florian Schaurer, Jan Störger: 'The Evolution of Open Source Intelligence', OSINT Report 3/2010, ISN, ETH Zürich, October 2010]
* {{Cite book|last=Hassan, Nihad A.|title=Open source intelligence methods and tools : a practical guide to online intelligence|others=Hijazi, Rami|date=30 June 2018|isbn=978-1-4842-3213-2|location=[United States]|oclc=1043830928}}

== External links ==

* [http://rr.reuser.biz The Open Source Intelligence Resource Discovery Toolkit]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20020307050442/http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020311/viewpoint.html The New Craft of Intelligence: Making the Most of Open Private Sector Knowledge]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080216224135/http://www.cm2limited.com/casestudies/casestudies.php Actual Intelligence Case Studies Leveraging Open Source Intelligence (OSINT)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613113235/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no3/article05.html Sailing the Sea of OSINT in the Information Age]
*[https://fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL34270.pdf Open Source Intelligence (OSINT): Issues for Congress], Congressional Research Service, December 5, 2007
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031047/http://www.osint.org/crs-report-osint.pdf Open Source Intelligence (OSINT): Issues for Congress], Congressional Research Service, January 28, 2008
*[https://www.thefreelibrary.com/FMSO-JRIC+and+Open+Source+Intelligence%3A+speaking+prose+in+a+world+of...-a0146354022 The Free Library], FMSO-JRIC and Open Source Intelligence: speaking prose in a world of verse, Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, Oct–Dec, 2005 by Jacob W. Kipp

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{{Sourceattribution|Open-source intelligence}}