View source for Philosophy:Confidence

{{Short description|State of trusting that a belief or course of action is correct}}
{{Copy edit|date=February 2023}}
[[File:Confident Boxer (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|262px|A young boxer shows confidence in herself and in her equipment.]]
{{Emotion}}
'''Confidence''' is the state of being clear-headed: either that a [[Hypothesis|hypothesis]] or prediction is correct, or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective. Confidence comes from the [[Social:Latin|Latin]] word {{lang|la|fidere}} which means "to trust". In contrast, arrogance or [[Philosophy:Hubris|hubris]] is a state of unmerited confidence—belief lacking [[Philosophy:Evidence|evidence]] and/or a reason. Overconfidence or presumptuousness is excessive belief in success without regard for potential failure. Confidence can be a [[Self-fulfilling prophecy|self-fulfilling prophecy]], as those without it may fail because they lack it, and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability or [[Philosophy:Skill|skill]]. We develop a tractable method fro augmenting macroeconomic models with autonomous variation in higher -order beliefs <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Angeletos |first=George-Marios |last2=Collard |first2=Fabrice |last3=Dellas |first3=Harris |date=2018 |title=Quantifying Confidence |url=https://www.econometricsociety.org/doi/10.3982/ECTA13079 |journal=Econometrica |language=en |volume=86 |issue=5 |pages=1689–1726 |doi=10.3982/ECTA13079 |issn=0012-9682}}</ref>

'''Self-confidence''' is trust in oneself, one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self-confidence often increases as one satisfactorily completes particular activities.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IyqCNBD6oIC|title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology|last1=Snyder|first1=C. R.|last2=Lopez|first2=Shane J.|date=2009-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518724-3}}</ref> Self-confidence involves a positive<ref name=":2" /> belief that one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do in the future. Self-confidence is not the same as [[Philosophy:Self-esteem|self-esteem]], which is an evaluation of one's worth. Self-confidence is more specifically trust in one's ability to achieve some goal, which one meta-analysis suggested is similar to the generalization of [[Philosophy:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Erez|first2=Amir|last3=Bono|first3=Joyce E.|last4=Thoresen|first4=Carl J.|s2cid=18551901|date=2002-09-01|title=Are measures of self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of control, and generalized self-efficacy indicators of a common core construct?|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=83|issue=3|pages=693–710|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.693|pmid=12219863|issn=1939-1315}}</ref> Abraham Maslow and many others have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-confidence as a generalized personality characteristic and self-confidence concerning a specific task, ability, or challenge (i.e., self-efficacy). The term "self-confidence" typically refers to a general personality trait— in contrast, "self-efficacy" is defined by psychologist Albert Bandura as a "belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task".<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Social cognitive theory|editor-first1=M.|editor-last1=Conner|editor-first2=P.|editor-last2=Norman|title=Predicting health behaviour|edition=2nd|pages=127–169|last1=Luszczynska|first1=A.|last2=Schwarzer|first2=R.|location=Buckingham, England|publisher=Open University Press|year=2005}}</ref>

Building on Bandura's concept of self-efficacy, Alex Stajkovic introduces the concept of "core confidence", which "psychologically enables, or unlocks, one’s existing potential by believing that one can handle what needs to be done".<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Stajkovic |first=Alexander D. |date=2006 |title=Development of a core confidence-higher order construct. |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |language=en |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=1208–1224 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1208 |pmid=17100479 |issn=1939-1854}}</ref> Employees who have high core confidence are more likely to accept and commit to goals, while also increasing their performance.<ref name=":7" /> A person can possess self-confidence in their ability to complete a specific task (self-efficacy)—e.g. cook a good meal or write a good novel—even though they may lack general self-confidence, or conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task. These two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this reason, can be easily conflated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bauer|first=Raymond|date=1964-05-01|title=The obstinate audience: The influence process from the point of view of social communication |journal=American Psychologist|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=319–328|doi=10.1037/h0042851|issn=1935-990X}}</ref>

== History ==
Ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in English-language publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward God,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England.|last=Edwards, J., & Wesley, J.|publisher=S. Kneeland and T. Green.|year=1742}}</ref> the character of the British empire,<ref>{{Cite book|title=This Vicissitude of Motion and Rest, Which We Call Life|last=Freiburg|first=R|publisher=The Spectator|year=1742}}</ref> and the culture of colonial-era American society<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/democracyinamer10tocqgoog|title=Democracy in America: Volume II|last=Tocqueville|first=Alexis de|year=1899|publisher=Washington Square Press|language=en}}</ref> (where it seemed to connote arrogance and be a negative attribute).

In 1890, the philosopher [[Biography:William James|William James]] in his ''Principles of Psychology'' wrote, "Believe what is in the line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulfilled... Have faith that you can successfully make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment", expressing how self-confidence could be a virtue. That same year, Dr. Frederick Needham, in his presidential address to the opening of the ''[[Medicine:The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]''{{'}}s Section of Psychology praised a progressive new architecture of an asylum accommodation for patients as increasing their self-confidence by offering them greater "liberty of action, extended exercise, and occupation, thus generating self-confidence and becoming, not only excellent tests of the sanity of the patient, but operating powerfully in promoting recovery".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Needham|first=Frederick|date=1890-08-09|title=An Address Delivered at the Opening of the Section of Psychology|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=1545|pages=325–330|issn=0007-1447|pmc=2207994|pmid=20753102|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.1545.325}}</ref>

With [[Social:World War I|World War I]], psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bird|first=Charles|date=1917-01-01|title=From Home to the Charge: A Psychological Study of the Soldier|jstor=1413607|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=28|issue=3|pages=315–348|doi=10.2307/1413607}}</ref> At the height of the [[Social:Temperance movement|Temperance social reform movement]] of the 1920s, psychologists associated self-confidence in men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wheeler|first=Mary P.|year=1918|title=Alcohol and Social Case Work|jstor=1014456|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=77|pages=154–159|doi=10.1177/000271621807700116|s2cid=143016895|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448670}}</ref> During the [[Finance:Great Depression|Great Depression]], Philip Eisenberg and Paul Lazerfeld noted how a sudden negative change in one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. They also noted how if individuals do not have a job long enough, they become apathetic and lose all self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eisenberg|first1=P.|last2=Lazarsfeld|first2=P. F.|date=1938-06-01|title=The psychological effects of unemployment |journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=358–390|doi=10.1037/h0063426|issn=1939-1455}}</ref>

In 1943, Abraham Maslow argued in his paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" that an individual is only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of "esteem") after achieving what they need for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. He claimed that satisfaction with self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire for "[[Philosophy:Self-actualization|self-actualization]]".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maslow|first=A. H.|date=1943-07-01|title=A theory of human motivation |journal=Psychological Review|language=en|volume=50|issue=4|pages=370–396|doi=10.1037/h0054346|issn=1939-1471|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586|s2cid=53326433 }}</ref> As material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries after World War II and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research about confidence and related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Greenwald|first1=A. G.|last2=Banaji|first2= M. R.|year=1995|title=Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes |journal=Psychological Review|language=en|volume=102|issue=1|pages=4–27|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4|pmid=7878162|issn=1939-1471|citeseerx=10.1.1.411.2919|s2cid=8194189 }}
|2={{Cite book |title=Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour|last1=Bénabou|first1=Roland|last2=Tirole|first2=Jean|year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=9781349521449|editor-last=Agarwal|editor-first=Bina|series=International Economic Association Series|pages=19–57|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230522343_2|editor-last2=Vercelli|editor-first2=Alessandro|citeseerx=10.1.1.179.119}}
|3={{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ-PN9g_o-EC|title=Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control|last=Bandura|first=Albert|date=1997-02-15|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-7167-2850-4}}
|4={{Cite journal|last1=Baumeister|first1=Roy F.|last2=Campbell|first2=Jennifer D.|last3=Krueger|first3=Joachim I.|last4=Vohs|first4=Kathleen D.|date=2003-05-01|title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–44|doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431|issn=1529-1006|pmid=26151640|doi-access=free}}
}}</ref>

== Theories and correlations with other variables and factors ==

=== Self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable ===
Social psychologists found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables including saving money,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thorndike|first=Edward L.|year=1920|title=Psychological Notes on the Motives for Thrift|jstor=1014401|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=87|pages=212–218|doi=10.1177/000271622008700133|s2cid=145103629|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448674}}</ref> influencing others,<ref name="Mowday 709–725">{{Cite journal|last=Mowday|first=Richard T.|date=1979-12-01|title=Leader Characteristics, Self-Confidence, and Methods of Upward Influence in Organizational Decision Situations |journal=Academy of Management Journal|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=709–725|doi=10.2307/255810|issn=0001-4273|jstor=255810}}</ref> and being a responsible student.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gough|first1=Harrison G.|last2=McClosky|first2=Herbert|last3=Meehl|first3=Paul E.|year=1952|title=A personality scale for social responsibility |journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=73–80|doi=10.1037/h0062924|pmid=14907250|issn=0096-851X}}</ref> Marketing researchers found that the general self-confidence of a person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Locander|first1=William B.|last2=Hermann|first2=Peter W.|year=1979|title=The Effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction|jstor=3150690|journal=Journal of Marketing Research|volume=16|issue=2|pages=268–274|doi=10.2307/3150690}}</ref>

Some studies suggest various factors within and beyond an individual's control that affect their self-confidence. Hippel and Trivers propose that people will deceive themselves about their positive qualities and the negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hippel|first1=William von|last2=Trivers|first2=Robert|date=2011-02-01|title=The evolution and psychology of self-deception|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/the-evolution-and-psychology-of-self-deception/B87968EC4A6B4DC93A21C217ABC13E13|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=34|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1017/S0140525X10001354|pmid=21288379|issn=1469-1825}}</ref> Others found that new information about an individual's performance interacts with their prior self-confidence about their ability to perform. If that information is negative feedback, this may interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Cervone|first1=Daniel|last2=Kopp|first2=Deborah A.|last3=Schaumann|first3=Linda|last4=Scott|first4=Walter D.|date=1994-09-01|title=Mood, self-efficacy, and performance standards: Lower moods induce higher standards for performance |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=499–512|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.499|issn=1939-1315}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=J. C.|last2=Mischel|first2= W.|year=1982|title=The influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=43|issue=5|pages=901–914|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.901}}
}}</ref> Self-confidence increases a person's general well-being<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Akerlof|first1= G. A.|last2=Dickens|first2= W. T.|year=1972|title=The Economic Consequences of Cognitive Dissonance|journal=American Economic Review|volume=72 |issue=3|pages=307–319}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Caplin|first1= A.|last2=Leahy|first2= J.|year=2001|title=Psychological expected utility theory and anticipatory feelings|jstor=2696443|journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=116|issue=1|pages=55–79|doi=10.1162/003355301556347|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.9951}}
}}</ref> and one's motivation<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bénabou|first1= R.|last2=Tirole|first2= J.|year=2005|title=Self-confidence and personal motivation|journal=Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour|pages=19–57|doi=10.1057/9780230522343_2|isbn=978-1-349-52144-9|url=http://publications.ut-capitole.fr/1026/1/self_confidence.pdf }}</ref> which often increases performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Compte|first1=O.|last2= Postlewaite|first2= A.|year=2004|title=Confidence-enhanced performance|journal=The American Economic Review|volume=94 |issue=5|pages=1536–1557|doi=10.1257/0002828043052204|citeseerx=10.1.1.318.7105}}</ref> It also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LYzgr6niYoC&pg=PR11 |title=The Ecology of Stress|last=Hobfoll|first=Stevan E.|year=1988|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780891168454|language=en}}
|2={{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAbHKvNF5tQC&pg=PP1 |title=The Social Psychology of Everyday Life|last=Argyle|first=Michael|date=2013-04-15|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134961733|language=en}}
}}</ref>

A meta-analysis of twelve studies found that when people attribute their success to a stable cause (a matter under their control) they are less likely to be confident about being successful in the future. If someone attributes their failure to an unstable cause (a factor beyond their control, like a sudden and unexpected storm) they are more likely to be confident about succeeding in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weiner|first=Bernard|s2cid=6499506|year=1985|title=An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion|journal=Psychological Review|volume=92 |issue=4|pages=548–573|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.548|pmid=3903815}}</ref> Therefore, if a person believes they and/or others failed to achieve a goal (e.g. give up smoking) because of a factor that was beyond their control, they are more likely to be more self-confident that they can achieve the goal in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eiser|first1=J. Richard|last2=Sutton|first2=Stephen R.|year=1977|title=Smoking as a subjectively rational choice |journal=Addictive Behaviors|volume=2|issue=2–3|pages=129–134|doi=10.1016/0306-4603(77)90030-2|pmid=899903}}</ref> Whether a person, in making a decision, seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence specific to that area. As the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be influenced by another person and seek out additional information.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Zellner|first=M.|year=1970|volume=15 |issue=1|pages=87–93|doi=10.1037/h0029201|pmid=4393678|title=Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology}}</ref> However, people can also be more self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with their world views (e.g. ''New York Times'' for liberals, ''Fox News'' for conservatives){{Globalize inline|region=U.S.A.|date=July 2023}}, {{non sequitur|text=even if they do not know what will happen tomorrow|date=July 2023}}.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology|last=Frey|first=Dieter|year=1986|publisher=Academic Press|editor-last=Berkowitz|editor-first=Leonard|volume=19|pages=41–80|doi=10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60212-9|isbn=9780120152193}}</ref> Several psychologists suggest that self-confident people are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes. Meanwhile, people who are less self-confident about their perspective and are more defensive about it may prefer attitudinal information over information that challenges their perspectives.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Albarracín|first1=D.|last2=Mitchell|first2=A.L.|year=2004|title=The role of defensive confidence in preference for attitudinal information: How believing that one is strong can sometimes be a defensive weakness.|pmc=4803283|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=30 |issue=12|pages=1565–1584|doi=10.1177/0146167204271180|pmid=15536240}}
|2={{Cite journal|last=Byrne|first=Donn|date=1961-09-01|title=The repression-sensitization scale: rationale, reliability, and validity |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=334–349|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1961.tb01666.x|pmid=13689584|issn=1467-6494}}
|3={{Cite journal|last1=Albarracín|first1=Dolores|last2=Mitchell|first2=Amy L.|date=2004-12-01|title=The Role of Defensive Confidence in Preference for Proattitudinal Information: How Believing That One Is Strong Can Sometimes Be a Defensive Weakness |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1565–1584|doi=10.1177/0146167204271180|issn=0146-1672|pmc=4803283|pmid=15536240}}
}}</ref> (see also Olson & Zanna, 1982b;{{full citation needed|date=July 2023}} for related views in other domains, see Tesser, 2001{{full citation needed|date=July 2023}}).

=== Relationship to social influences ===
An individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or in school, and concerning different types of relationships and situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reis|first=Harry T.|s2cid=206682425|date=2008-11-01|title=Reinvigorating the Concept of Situation in Social Psychology |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=311–329|doi=10.1177/1088868308321721|issn=1088-8683|pmid=18812499}}</ref>

The more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the judgments of others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deutsch|first1= Morton |last2=Gerard|first2= Harold B. |s2cid=35785090 |year=1955|title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment|journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume= 51 |issue= 3|pages=629–636|doi=10.1037/h0046408|pmid=13286010 }}</ref>

Leon Festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only rise or fall when that individual can compare themselves to others who are roughly similar, in a competitive environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Festinger|first=L.|s2cid=18918768|year=1954|title=A theory of social comparison processes.|journal=Human Relations|volume=7|issue=2|pages=117–140|doi=10.1177/001872675400700202}}</ref>

When individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Mobius |first1=M. M. |last2=Niederle |first2=M. |last3=Niehaus |first3=P. |last4=Rosenblat |first4=T. S. |year=2011 |title=Managing Self-Confidence: Theory and Experimental Evidence |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 17014 |doi=10.3386/w17014 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

People with high self-confidence are more likely to impress others, as others perceive them as more knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Price|first1=Paul C.|last2=Stone|first2=Eric R.|year=2004|title=Intuitive evaluation of likelihood judgment producers: evidence for a confidence heuristic |journal=Journal of Behavioral Decision Making|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=39–57|doi=10.1002/bdm.460|issn=1099-0771|hdl=10211.3/187361|s2cid=145763938 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> There is ample evidence that emotions affect performance. Positive emotions can improve performance, while negative one can diminish it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Compte |first=Olivier |last2=Postlewaite |first2=Andrew |date=December 2004 |title=Confidence-Enhanced Performance |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/0002828043052204 |journal=American Economic Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=1536–1557 |doi=10.1257/0002828043052204 |issn=0002-8282}}</ref> Despite this, a negative correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and the accuracy of their claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Slovenko|first= R.|year=1999|title=Testifying with confidence|url=http://jaapl.org/content/27/1/127.short|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online|volume=27 |issue=1|pages=127–131|pmid=10212032}}</ref> When people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to believe the testimony,<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Penrod|first1=Steven|last2=Cutler|first2=Brian|title=Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation |journal=Psychology, Public Policy, and Law|volume=1|issue=4|pages=817–845|doi=10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817|year=1995}}</ref> and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zarnoth|first1=P.|last2=Sniezek|first2=J.A.|s2cid=28783168|year=1997|title=The social influence of confidence in group decision making |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=33 |issue=4|pages=345–366|doi=10.1006/jesp.1997.1326|pmid=9247369}}</ref> However, expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror reliance on self-confidence.<ref name=":5" />

People prefer leaders with greater self-confidence over those with less self-confidence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Conger|first1=Jay A.|last2=Kanungo|first2=Rabindra N.|year=1994|title=Charismatic Leadership in Organizations: Perceived Behavioral Attributes and Their Measurement|jstor=2488215|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=15|issue=5|pages=439–452|doi=10.1002/job.4030150508}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Shamir|first1=Boas|last2=House|first2=Robert J.|last3=Arthur|first3=Michael B.|year=1993|title=The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory|jstor=2635081|journal=Organization Science|volume=4|issue=4|pages=577–594|doi=10.1287/orsc.4.4.577}}
}}</ref> Heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence relative to other men more easily attract single and partnered women.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last=Buss|first=D.M.|year=2009|title=The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology|url=http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/2009_Buss_AmPsycho_Darwin.pdf|journal=American Psychologist|volume=64|issue=2|pages=140–148|doi=10.1037/a0013207|pmid=19203146|access-date=2020-01-26|archive-date=2019-02-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214195259/http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/2009_Buss_AmPsycho_Darwin.pdf|url-status=dead}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Schmitt|first1=D.P.|last2=Buss|first2=D.M.|year=2001|title=Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships|url=http://bradley.edu/dotAsset/165822.pdf|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=80|issue=6|pages=894–917|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.894|pmid=11414373}}
}}</ref>

Salespeople who are high in self-confidence tend to set higher goals for themselves, which makes them more likely to stay employed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S.P.|last2=Cron|first2=W.L.|last3=Slocum Jr.|first3=J.W.|year=1988|title=Effects of trait competitiveness and perceived intraorganizational competition on salesperson goal setting and performance|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277440987|journal=The Journal of Marketing|pages=88–98}}</ref> yield higher revenues, and generate higher customer service satisfaction.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Ad|last2=Ruyter|first2=Ko de|last3=Wetzels|first3=Martin|s2cid=168139940|title=Linking employee confidence to performance: A study of self-managing service teams|journal=Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science|language=en|volume=34|issue=4|pages=576|doi=10.1177/0092070306287126|issn=0092-0703|year=2006}}
|2={{Cite journal|last=Westbrook|first=R.A.|year=1980|title=Intrapersonal affective influences on consumer satisfaction with products|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=49–54|doi=10.1086/208792|citeseerx=10.1.1.1032.3637}}
}}</ref>

Self-confident leaders tend to influence others through persuasion instead of resorting to coercive means. They are more likely to resolve issues by referring them to another qualified person or calling upon bureaucratic procedures (organizational policies, regulations, etc.), which avoid personal involvement.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|title=Power and Discontent|last=Gamson|first=W.|location=Homewood, Ill.|publisher=Dorsey|year=1968}}
|2={{Cite book|title=Men and women in the corporation|last=Kanter|first=R.|location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|year=1977}}
|3={{Cite journal|last1=Kipnis|first1=D.|last2=Lane|first2=W.|year=1962|title=Self-confidence and leadership|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=46|issue=4|pages=291–295|doi=10.1037/h0044720}}
|4={{Cite journal|last1=Goodstadt|first1=B.|last2=Kipnis|first2=D.|year=1970|title=Situational influence on the use of power|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=54|issue=3|pages=201–207|doi=10.1037/h0029265}}
}}</ref> Others suggest that self-confidence does not affect leadership style but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of power.<ref name="Mowday 709–725" />

=== Variation in different categorical groups ===
Social scientists have discovered that self-confidence operates differently in different categories of people.

==== Children ====
Zimmerman claimed that if children are self-confident, they are more likely to sacrifice immediate recreational time for possible rewards in the future, enhancing their self-regulatory capability.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Barry J.|year=1990|title=Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview|journal=Educational Psychologist|volume=25|issue=1|pages=3–17|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2|issn=0046-1520}}</ref> By adolescence, youth who have little contact with friends tend to have low self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waddell|first=Kathleen J.|date=1984-03-01|title=The self-concept and social adaptation of hyperactive children in adolescence|journal=Journal of Clinical Child Psychology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=50–55|doi=10.1080/15374418409533169|issn=0047-228X}}</ref> Successful performance of children in music increases feelings of self-confidence, increasing motivation for study.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Clift|first1=S.|last2=Hancox|first2=G.|last3=Staricoff|first3=R.|last4=Whitmore|first4=C.|year=2008|title=Singing and health: A systematic mapping and review of non-clinical research|journal=Sidney de Haan Research Centre for Arts and Health: Canterbury Christ Church University}}
|2={{Cite journal|last=Hallam|first=Susan|date=2010-08-01|title=The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people|journal=International Journal of Music Education|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=269–289|doi=10.1177/0255761410370658|issn=0255-7614|s2cid=5662260}}
}}</ref>

In children, self-confidence emerges differently than in adults. For example, Fenton suggested that only{{ambiguous|date=July 2023}} children as a group are more self-confident than other children.<ref name="Fenton 546–556">{{Cite journal|last=Fenton|first=Norman|title=The Only Child |journal=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology|volume=35|issue=4|pages=546–556|doi=10.1080/08856559.1928.10532171|year=1928}}</ref>

==== Students ====
[[File:Bashful Sturgeon Bay.jpg|thumb|Captioned "Bashful" in a 1916–1917 yearbook, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin]]
Many students focus on their studies in school. In general, students who perform well have increased confidence which likely in turn encourages students to take greater responsibility to complete tasks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Barry J.|last2=Kitsantas|first2=Anastasia|date=2005-10-01|title=Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs |journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology|volume=30|issue=4|pages=397–417|doi=10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.05.003|s2cid=145715728 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/940375}}</ref> Students who perform better receive more positive evaluation reports and greater self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pajares|first1=Frank|last2=Johnson|first2=Margaret J.|date=1996-04-01|title=Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students |journal=Psychology in the Schools|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=163–175|doi=10.1002/(sici)1520-6807(199604)33:2<163::aid-pits10>3.0.co;2-c|issn=1520-6807}}</ref> Low achieving students report less confidence and high performing students report higher self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zusho|first1=Akane|last2=Pintrich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Coppola|first3=Brian|s2cid=17385637|date=2003-09-01|title=Skill and will: The role of motivation and cognition in the learning of college chemistry |journal=International Journal of Science Education|volume=25|issue=9|pages=1081–1094|doi=10.1080/0950069032000052207|issn=0950-0693|bibcode=2003IJSEd..25.1081Z}}</ref>

[[Social:Extracurricular activity|Extracurricular activities]] can boost confidence in students at earlier ages only{{ambiguous|date=July 2023}} in school. These include participation in games/sports, visual and performing [[Art|art]]s, and public speaking, among others.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Importance of Cultural Activities|first=Vishwashanti|last=Gurukul|url=https://www.mitgurukul.com/Why-cultural-activities-are-important-along-with-academics.php#:~:text=Social%20Benefits,opportunities%20to%20interact%20with%20others.&text=Interaction%20with%20other%20students%20belonging,they%20learn%20to%20respect%20others.|access-date=2021-07-08|website=www.mitgurukul.com}}</ref>

Teachers affect the self-confidence of their students depending on how they treat them.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7A2LKwAACAAJ|title=Social Psychology|last1=Smith|first1=Eliot R.|last2=Mackie|first2=Diane M.|year=2007|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-84169-408-5}}</ref> Black students{{globalize inline|region=U.S.A.|date=July 2023}} perform more poorly on exams (relative to white students) if they must reveal their racial identities before the exam, a phenomenon known as "stereotype threat."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steele|first1=C.M.|last2=Aronson|first2=J.|s2cid=4665022|year=1995|title=Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=69| issue =  5|pages=797–811|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797|pmid=7473032}}</ref> Keller and Dauenheimer find a similar phenomenon about female students' performance (relative to male students) on math tests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Johannes|last2=Dauenheimer|first2=Dirk|date=2003-03-01|title=Stereotype Threat in the Classroom: Dejection Mediates the Disrupting Threat Effect on Women's Math Performance |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=371–381|doi=10.1177/0146167202250218|issn=0146-1672|pmid=15273014|s2cid=38999448}}</ref> Sociologists of education Zhou and Lee observed the reverse phenomenon occurring amongst Asian-Americans, whose confidence becomes tied up in expectations that they will succeed by both parents and teachers and who claim others perceive them as excelling academically more than they are.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=J.|last2=Zhou|first2=M.|year=2014|title=From unassimilable to exceptional: The rise of Asian Americans and 'Stereotype Promise'|journal=New Diversities|volume=16| issue=1|pages=7–22}}</ref>

In one study of UCLA students, males (compared to females) and adolescents with more siblings (compared to those with less) were more self-confident. Individuals who were self-confident specifically in the academic domain were more likely to be happy but higher general self-confidence was not correlated with happiness. With greater anxiety, shyness, and depression, emotionally vulnerable students feel more lonely due to a lack of general self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng |first1=Helen |last2=Furnham |first2=Adrian |date=2002-06-01|title=Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness |journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=25|issue=3|pages=327–339|doi=10.1006/jado.2002.0475|pmid=12128043 }}</ref> Another study of first-year college students found men to be much more self-confident than women in athletic and academic activities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Lopez|first1=F.G.|last2=Gormley|first2=B.|year=2002|title=Stability and change in adult attachment style over the first-year college transition: Relations to self-confidence, coping, and distress patterns|journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology|volume=45 |issue=3|pages=355–364|doi=10.1037/0022-0167.49.3.355}}</ref> In regards to inter-ethnic interaction and language learning, studies show that those who engage more with people of different ethnicity and language become more self-confident in interacting with them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Noels|first1=Kimberly A.|last2=Pon|first2=Gordon|last3=Clement|first3=Richard|date=1996-09-01|title=Language, Identity, and Adjustment The Role of Linguistic Self-Confidence in the Acculturation Process |journal=Journal of Language and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=246–264|doi=10.1177/0261927X960153003|s2cid=145666109|issn=0261-927X}}</ref>

==== Men versus women ====
Barber and Odean find that male common stock investors trade 45% more than their female counterparts, which they attribute to greater recklessness (though also self-confidence) of men, reducing men's net returns by 2.65 percentage points per year versus women's 1.72 percentage points.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barber|first1=B.M.|last2=Odean|first2=T.|year=2001 |title=Boys will be boys: Gender, overconfidence, and common stock investment |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=116 |pages=261–292 |doi=10.1162/003355301556400|citeseerx=10.1.1.295.7095 }}</ref>

Research finds that women report self-confidence levels in supervising subordinates proportionate to their experience level, while men report being able to supervise subordinates well regardless of experience.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Instone|first1=D.|last2=Major|first2=B.|last3=Bunker|first3=B.B.|year=1983|title=Gender, self-confidence, and social influence strategies: An organizational simulation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=44 |issue=2|pages=322–333|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.322}}</ref>

More self-confident women may receive high-performance evaluations but not be as well-liked as men who engage in the same behaviour.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=D.|last2=Geis|first2=F.L.|year=1990|title=Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=58|pages=48–59|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.48}}</ref> However confident women were considered a better job candidate than both men and women who behaved modestly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rudman|first=L. A.|year=1988|title=Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=74 |issue=3|pages=629–645|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629|pmid=9523410|citeseerx=10.1.1.453.3587}}</ref>

In the aftermath of the first wave of feminism and women's role in the labour force during World War II, Maslow argued that some women who possessed a more "dominant" personality were more self-confident and therefore would aspire to and achieve more intellectually than those that had a less "dominant" personality—even if they had the same level of intelligence as the "less dominant" women. However, Phillip Eisenberg later found the same dynamic among men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maslow|first=A. H.|title=Dominance, Personality, and Social Behavior in Women |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=3–39|doi=10.1080/00224545.1939.9713343|year=1939}}</ref>

Women who are either high or low in general self-confidence are more likely to be persuaded to change their opinion than women with medium self-confidence. However, when specific high confidence (self-efficacy) is high, generalized confidence plays less of a role in affecting their ability to carry out the task.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Donald F.|last2=Bauer|first2=Raymond A.|year=1964|title=Self-Confidence and Persuasibility in Women|jstor=2747017|journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly|volume=28|issue=3|pages=453–466|doi=10.1086/267266}}</ref> Men who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than men of high generalized self-confidence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/documentsofgesta027559mbp |page=[https://archive.org/details/documentsofgesta027559mbp/page/n235 222] |title=Documents of Gestalt Psychology|last=Henle|first=Mary|year=1961|publisher=University of California Press|language=en}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Berkowitz|first1=Leonard|last2=Lundy|first2=Richard M.|date=1957-03-01|title=Personality Characteristics Related to Susceptibility to Influence by Peers or Authority Figures |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=306–316|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1957.tb01529.x|pmid=13439514|issn=1467-6494}}
|3={{Cite journal|last=Janis|first=Irving L|date=1954-06-01|title=Personality Correlates of Susceptibility To Persuasion |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=504–518|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01870.x|pmid=13163818|issn=1467-6494}}
}}</ref>

Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men.<ref name=":3" /> Niederle and Westerlund found that men are much more competitive and obtain higher compensation than women and that this difference is due to differences in self-confidence, while risk and feedback-aversion play a negligible role.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Niederle|first1=M.|last2=Vesterlund|first2=L.|year=2007|title=Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much?|url=https://econweb.ucsd.edu/~jandreon/Econ264/papers/Vesterlund%20Niederle%20NBER%202005.pdf|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=122|issue=3|pages=1067–1101|doi=10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067|citeseerx=10.1.1.151.4864}}</ref> Some scholars partly attribute the fact of women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cunningham|first1=C.M.|last2=Thompson|first2=M.|last3=Lachapelle|first3=C.P.|last4=Goodman|first4=I.F.|last5=Bittinger|first5=K.C.|year=2006|title=Women's experiences in college engineering and support programs: Findings from the WECE project|url=https://journals.psu.edu/wepan/article/viewFile/58204/57892|journal=Women in Engineering ProActive Network.}}</ref>

One study found that women who viewed commercials with women in traditional gender roles appeared less self-confident in giving a speech than those who viewed commercials with women taking on more masculine roles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Jennings-Walstedt|first1=J.|last2=Geis|first2=F.L.|last3=Brown|first3=V.|year=1980|title=Influence of television commercials on women's self-confidence and independent judgment |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=38 |issue=3|pages=203–210|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.203}}</ref> Such self-confidence may also be related to body image, as one study found a sample of overweight people in Australia and the U.S. are less self-confident about their body's performance than people of average weight, and the difference is even greater for women than for men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tiggemann|first1=Marika|last2=Rothblum|first2=Esther D.|s2cid=145751588|title=Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia|journal=Sex Roles|language=en|volume=18|issue=1–2|pages=75–86|doi=10.1007/BF00288018|issn=0360-0025|year=1988}}</ref> Others found that if a newborn is separated from its mother upon delivery, the mother is less self-confident in her ability to raise that child than one who was not separated from her child, even if the two mothers did not differ much in their care-taking abilities. Furthermore, women who initially had low self-confidence are likely to experience a larger drop of self-confidence after separation from their children than women with relatively higher self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seashore|first1=M.J.|last2=Leifer|first2=A.D.|last3=Barnett|first3=C.R.|last4=Leiderman|first4=P.H.|year=1973|title=The effects of denial of early mother-infant interaction on maternal self-confidence |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=26 |issue=3|pages=369–378|doi=10.1037/h0034497|pmid=4710108}}</ref>

Another research showed that contrary to stereotypes and older research, female and male managers were strikingly similar. Women and men with cross-sex role identities showed lower levels of self-confidence than those did with androgynous orientations; high self-confidence was linked with masculine and androgynous orientations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chusmir |first=Leonard H. |last2=Koberg |first2=Christine S. |date=December 1991 |title=Relationship between Self-Confidence and Sex Role Identity among Managerial Women and Men |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1991.9924665 |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages=781–790 |doi=10.1080/00224545.1991.9924665 |issn=0022-4545}}</ref>

=== Stereotype threat ===
[[Philosophy:Stereotype threat|Stereotype threat]] examines how a social identity that is negatively stereotyped causes vulnerabilities in a stereotype-relevant situation. This concept examines factors such as the difficulty of the task while experiencing stereotype threat, beliefs about abilities, as well as the interplay of the relevance of the stereotype to the task.

==== Self-confidence in different cultures ====
Some suggest that self-confidence is more adaptive in cultures where people are not very concerned about maintaining harmonious relationships. But in cultures that value positive feelings and self-confidence less, maintenance of smooth interpersonal relationships is more important, and therefore [[Philosophy:Self-criticism|self-criticism]] and concern to save face is more adaptive. For example, Suh ''et al.'' argue that East Asians are not as concerned with maintaining self-confidence as Americans<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Suh|first1=E.|last2=Diener|first2=E.|last3=Oishi|first3=S.|last4=Triandis|first4=H.C.|year=1988|title=The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=74 |issue=2|pages=482|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482|citeseerx=10.1.1.527.7987}}</ref> and some find Asians perform better when they ''lack'' confidence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Heine|first1=S.J.|last2=Kitayama|first2=S.|last3=Lehman|first3=D.R.|last4=Takata|first4=T.|last5=Ide|first5=E.|last6=Leung|first6=C.|last7=Matsumoto|first7=H.|s2cid=3745951|year=2001|title=Divergent consequences of success and failure in japan and north America: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=81 |issue=4|pages=599–615|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599|pmid=11642348}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Diener|first1=Ed|last2=Oishi|first2=Shigehiro|last3=Lucas|first3=Richard E.|date=2003-02-01|title=Personality, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being: Emotional and Cognitive Evaluations of Life |journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=403–425|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056|issn=0066-4308|pmid=12172000}}
|3={{Cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=Heather J.|last2=Williams|first2=Jean M.|s2cid=145178557|date=2006-09-01|title=Moving Cultural Background to the Foreground: An Investigation of Self-Talk, Performance, and Persistence Following Feedback |journal=Journal of Applied Sport Psychology|volume=18|issue=3|pages=240–253|doi=10.1080/10413200600830315|issn=1041-3200}}
}}</ref>

==== Athletes ====
Sports psychologists note the importance of self-confidence in winning athletic competitions. Among athletes, gymnasts who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tend to be more self-confident than gymnasts who do not.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mahoney|first1=Michael J.|last2=Avener|first2=Marshall|s2cid=39561309|title=Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study|journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=135–141|doi=10.1007/BF01173634|issn=0147-5916|year=1977}}</ref> Researchers found that self-confidence is also one of the most influential factors in how well an athlete performs in a competition.<ref>{{multiref2
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Woodman|first1=Tim|last2=Hardy|first2=Lew|s2cid=481243|year=2003|title=The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=21|issue=6|pages=443–457|doi=10.1080/0264041031000101809|issn=0264-0414|pmid=12846532}}
}}</ref> In particular, "robust self-confidence beliefs" are correlated with aspects of "mental toughness", or the ability to cope better than your opponents with many demands and remain determined, focused, and in control under pressure.<ref name=":4">{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Bull|first1=Stephen J.|last2=Shambrook|first2=Christopher J.|last3=James|first3=Wil|last4=Brooks|first4=Jocelyne E.|s2cid=145484578|date=2005-09-01|title=Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers |journal=Journal of Applied Sport Psychology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=209–227|doi=10.1080/10413200591010085|issn=1041-3200}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Connaughton|first1=Declan|last2=Wadey|first2=Ross|last3=Hanton|first3=Sheldon|last4=Jones|first4=Graham|s2cid=23040478|year=2008|title=The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=26|issue=1|pages=83–95|doi=10.1080/02640410701310958|issn=0264-0414|pmid=17852671}}
}}</ref> Bull ''et al.'' make the distinction between "robust confidence" which leads to tough thinking, and "resilient confidence" which involves overcoming self-doubts and maintaining self-focus and generates "tough thinking."{{clarify|reason=since both lead to "tough thinking" that's not much of a distinction|date=July 2023}}<ref name=":4" /> These traits enable athletes to "bounce back from adversity".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Galli|first1=N.|last2=Vealey|first2=R.S.|s2cid=44199464|year=2008|title=Bouncing back from adversity: Athletes' experiences of resilience|journal= The Sport Psychologist|volume=22 |issue=3|pages=316–335|doi=10.1123/tsp.22.3.316}}</ref> When athletes confront stress while playing sports, their self-confidence decreases. However, feedback from their team members in the form of emotional and informational support reduces the extent to which stresses in sports reduce their self-confidence. At high levels of support, performance-related stress does not affect self-confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Paul|last2=Rees|first2=Tim|s2cid=143561743|year=2010|title=Perceived social support from team-mates: Direct and stress-buffering effects on self-confidence |journal=European Journal of Sport Science|volume=10|issue=1|pages=59–67|doi=10.1080/17461390903049998|issn=1746-1391|hdl=10871/16326|url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/16326/2/Freeman%20%26%20Rees%20%282010%29.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In a group, members' desire for success and confidence can also be related. Groups that had a higher desire for success did better in performance than groups with a weaker desire. The more frequently a group succeeded, the more interest they had in the activity and their desire for success grew.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zander|first1=Alvin|last2=Ulberg|first2=Cyrus|date=May 1971|title=The group level of aspiration and external social pressures|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance|volume=6|issue=3|pages=362–378|doi=10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7|hdl=2027.42/33663|issn=0030-5073|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Success can influence a group to have higher goals and strive to work harder, but this may not apply to tasks that are extrinsically motivating. However, over-confidence can cause people to loaf which can hinder a group's performance. People with high confidence whose performances were identifiable were less likely to loaf than people with less confidence in the same situation. People's confidence makes for successful team performance which improves the team's confidence as a whole.

== Measures ==
One of the earliest measures of self-confidence used a 12-point scale, ranging from a minimum score characterizing someone who is "timid and self-distrustful, shy, never makes decisions, self-effacing" to a maximum score characterizing someone who is "able to make decisions, absolutely confident and sure of his own decisions and opinions".<ref name="Fenton 546–556"/>

Some measured self-confidence as a simple construct divided into affective and cognitive components: anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluations of proficiency as a cognitive component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clément|first1=Richard|last2=Kruidenier|first2=Bastian G.|date=1983-09-01|title=Orientations in Second Language Acquisition: I. the Effects of Ethnic, Milieu, and Target Language on Their Emergence |journal=Language Learning|language=en|volume=33|issue=3|pages=273–291|doi=10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00542.x|issn=1467-9922}}</ref>

The more context-based Personal Evaluation Inventory, developed by Sidney Shrauger, measures specific self-esteem and self-confidence in different aspects (speaking in public spaces, academic performance, physical appearance, romantic relationships, social interactions, athletic ability, and general self-confidence).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shrauger|first1=J. Sidney|last2=Schohn|first2=Mary|date=1995-09-01|title=Self-Confidence in College Students: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Behavioral Implications |journal=Assessment|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=255–278|doi=10.1177/1073191195002003006|s2cid=144758626|issn=1073-1911}}</ref> Other surveys similarly measured self-confidence by evoking examples of more concrete activities (e.g. making new friends, keeping up with course demands, managing time wisely, etc.).<ref name=":0" /> The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 measures on a scale of 1 to 4 how confident athletes feel about winning an upcoming match.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rees|first1=Tim|last2=Freeman|first2=Paul|s2cid=424766|date=2007-07-01|title=The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=25|issue=9|pages=1057–1065|doi=10.1080/02640410600982279|issn=0264-0414|pmid=17497407|citeseerx=10.1.1.329.9348}}</ref> The Trait Robustness of Sports-Confidence Inventory asks respondents to provide numerical answers on a nine-point scale about how much their self-confidence goes up and down, and how sensitive their self-confidence is to performance and negative feedback.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beattie|first1=Stuart|last2=Hardy|first2=Lew|last3=Savage|first3=Jennifer|last4=Woodman|first4=Tim|last5=Callow|first5=Nichola|date=2011-03-01|title=Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence |journal=Psychology of Sport and Exercise|volume=12|issue=2|pages=184–191|doi=10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.09.008}}</ref>

Others use body language proxies rather than self-reports to measure self-confidence, by having examiners measure on a scale of 1 to 5 whether the subject:
# maintains frequent eye contact or almost completely avoids eye contact,
# engages in little or no fidgeting, or, a lot of fidgeting,
# seldom or frequently uses self-comforting gestures (e.g., stroking hair or chin, arms around self),
# sits up straight facing the experimenter, or sits hunched over or rigidly without facing the experimenter,
# has a natural facial expression, or, grimaces,
# does not twiddle hands or frequently twiddles something in their hand, or,
# uses body and hand gestures to emphasize a point, or never uses hand or body gestures to emphasize a point or makes inappropriate gestures.<ref name=":1" />

== Wheel of Wellness ==
{{importance section|date=July 2023}}
The Wheel of Wellness was the first theoretical model of Wellness based on counselling theory. It is a model based on Adler's individual psychology and cross-disciplinary research on characteristics of healthy people who live longer and with a higher [[Philosophy:Quality of life|quality of life]]. The Wheel of Wellness includes five interrelated life tasks: [[Philosophy:Spirituality|spirituality]], self-direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love. There are 15 subtasks of self-direction areas: the sense of worth, [[Philosophy:Self-control|sense of control]], realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and [[Philosophy:Self-compassion|coping]], problem-solving and [[Philosophy:Creativity|creativity]], sense of humour, nutrition, exercise, [[Philosophy:Self-care|self-care]], [[Social:Stress management|stress management]], [[Philosophy:Gender identity|gender identity]], and [[Social:Cultural identity|cultural identity]]. There are also five second-order factors, the Creative Self, Coping Self, Social Self, Essential Self, and Physical Self, which allow exploration of the meaning of wellness within the total self. To achieve high self-esteem, it is essential to focus on identifying strengths, positive assets, and resources related to each component of the Wellness model and using these strengths to cope with life challenges.<ref name="Myers">{{cite journal|last1=Myers|first1=Jane|last2=Willise|first2=John|last3=Villalba|first3=Jose|date=1 January 2011|title=Promoting Self-Esteem in Adolescents: The Influence of Wellness Factors|journal=Journal of Counseling and Development|volume=89|pages=28–30|doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00058.x|url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Myers_Promoting_2011.pdf}}</ref>

==Implicit vs. explicit==
{{importance section|date=July 2023}}
Implicitly measured self-esteem is weakly correlated with explicitly measured self-esteem.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Karpinski|first=Andrew|date=2003|title=Measuring self-esteem using the Implicit Association Test: The valence of the other|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e633872013-438|access-date=2020-12-19|website=PsycEXTRA Dataset|doi=10.1037/e633872013-438}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=how are these things measured?|date=September 2018}} Two experiments were conducted to examine implicit self-esteem by using a self-other Implicit Association Test (IAT.) Participants were asked to complete two different self-other IATs. One esteem-IAT had the other be unspecified and one in which the other specified to be a close friend. Friend other-IAT was just a replication of unspecified other-IAT, but the specified person could be either a dating partner or a close friend of the opposite sex. The order that it was taken was first, unspecified and then specified to prevent participants from associating the specified person with the unspecified other-IAT. Afterwards, participants completed an explicit measure of self-esteem through a self-semantic differential, a self-feeling thermometer, and the Rosenberg (1965) Self-Esteem Scale. There was no correlation found in the relationship between implicit and explicit measures of esteem.<ref name=":6" /> This leads some critics{{who|date=September 2018}} to assume that explicit and implicit self-confidence are two completely different types of self-esteem. Therefore, this has concluded that one will either have a distinct, unconscious self-esteem ''or'' they will consciously misrepresent how they feel about themselves. Recent studies have shown that implicit self-esteem does not particularly tap into the [[Biology:Unconscious mind|unconscious]], rather that people consciously overreport their levels of self-esteem. Another possibility is that implicit measurement may be assessing a different aspect of conscious self-esteem altogether.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Timko|first1=Alix|last2=England|first2=Erica|last3=Herbert|first3=James|last4=Foreman|first4=Evan|s2cid=55255465|title=The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure as a measure of Self-Esteem|journal=The Psychological Record|date=Fall 2010|volume=60|issue=4|pages=679|doi=10.1007/BF03395739|url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol60/iss4/9|access-date=2020-01-26|archive-date=2020-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126111539/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol60/iss4/9/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Inaccurate self-evaluation is commonly observed in healthy populations. In the extreme, large differences between one's self-perception and one's actual behaviour are a hallmark of several disorders that have important implications for understanding treatment-seeking and compliance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beer|first=J.|author2=Lombardo M |author3=Bhanji J. |title=Roles of Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Self-evaluation|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|date=September 2010|volume=22|issue=9|pages=2108–2119|doi=10.1162/jocn.2009.21359|pmid=19925187|pmc=4159715}}</ref>

== Extent ==
Motivation theories suggest that successful performance hinges on both [[Philosophy:Skill|skill]] and will,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Managerial attitudes and performance|last1=Porter|first1=L.W.|last2=Lawler|first2=E.|publisher=Dorsey|year=1968|location=Homework, Ill.}}</ref> though even a skilled and determined individual can fail if they lack confidence. Overconfidence supports delusional thinking, such as frequently occurs in individuals with [[Medicine:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoven |first1=Monja |last2=Lebreton |first2=Maël |last3=Engelmann |first3=Jan B. |last4=Denys |first4=Damiaan |last5=Luigjes |first5=Judy |last6=van Holst |first6=Ruth J. |year=2019 |title=Abnormalities of confidence in psychiatry: an overview and future perspectives |journal=Translational Psychiatry |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=268 |doi=10.1038/s41398-019-0602-7 |issn= |pmc=6803712 |pmid=31636252}}</ref> According to a meta-analysis, [[Medicine:Metacognitive training|metacognitive training]], a treatment approach for psychosis in schizophrenic patients, reduces delusions and hallucinations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penney |first1=Danielle |last2=Sauvé |first2=Geneviève |last3=Mendelson |first3=Daniel |last4=Thibaudeau |first4=Élisabeth |last5=Moritz |first5=Steffen |last6=Lepage |first6=Martin |date=2022-03-23 |title=Immediate and Sustained Outcomes and Moderators Associated With Metacognitive Training for Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2790555 |journal=JAMA Psychiatry |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=417–429 |language=en |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0277 |issn=2168-622X |pmc=8943641 |pmid=35320347}}</ref> This is attributed to the attenuation of {{clarify|text=response confidence|reason=what is "response confidence"?|date=July 2023}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Köther |first1=Ulf |last2=Vettorazzi |first2=Eik |last3=Veckenstedt |first3=Ruth |last4=Hottenrott |first4=Birgit |last5=Bohn |first5=Francesca |last6=Scheu |first6=Florian |last7=Pfueller |first7=Ute |last8=Roesch-Ely |first8=Daniela |last9=Moritz |first9=Steffen |title=Bayesian Analyses of the Effect of Metacognitive Training on Social Cognition Deficits and Overconfidence in Errors |url= |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychopathology |year=2017 |language= |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=158–174 |doi=10.5127/jep.054516 |s2cid=151837296 |issn=|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Lack of self-confidence==
Self-confidence affects interest and/or enthusiasm and self-regulation.<ref name=Foundations>{{Cite journal|last=Locke|first=Edwin A.|year=1987|title=Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive View (review)|journal=Academy of Management Review|volume=12|issue=1|pages=169–171|doi=10.5465/amr.1987.4306538|issn=0363-7425}}</ref> Self-confidence is the foundation of striving to accomplish goals and improve performance.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-first1=Daniel|editor-last1=Druckman|editor-first2=Robert A.|editor-last2=Bjork|url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/2303/learning-remembering-believing-enhancing-human-performance|title=Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance|year=1994|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-04993-1|location=Washington, D.C.|doi=10.17226/2303}}</ref> Self-confidence is not the same as motivation, but it plays a factor in what one perceives one is capable of performing. Low confidence makes it less likely that a person will initiate action and more likely that a person will disengage because they doubt they can handle what needs to be done. Even with skill and motivation, without confidence goals are not likely to be met. In certain fields of medical practice, patients experience a lack of self-confidence during the recovery period. This is commonly referred to as DSF or {{lang|la|defectum sui fiducia}} from the Latin for lack of self-confidence. This can be the case after a stroke when the patient refrains from using a weaker lower limb due to fear of it not being strong enough to hold their weight while standing or walking.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Franzoni|first1=S.|last2=Rozzini|first2=R.|last3=Boffelli|first3=S.|last4=Frisoni|first4=G.B.|last5=Trabucchi|first5=M.|year=1994|title=Fear of falling in nursing home patients|journal=Gerontology|volume=40|number=1|pages=38–44|doi=10.1159/000213573 |pmid=8034202 }}</ref>

The mindset that an individual has towards their goals is influenced by self-confidence, which serves "to mediate the relationship between goals intentions and motivation."{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} Higher confidence is correlated with individuals setting higher goals, due to the belief that they can accomplish and can commit to greater goals. When people face feelings of discontent because they do not accomplish a certain goal, Bandura predicts that people who have a higher self-confidence will become even more persistent in accomplishing their goals,{{r|Foundations}} whereas those with low self-confidence are more prone to give up quickly. More self-confident individuals will change their goals to cater more towards them. Lower self-confident individuals will "become discouraged and abandon their goal altogether".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bandura|first1=Albert|last2=Cervone|first2=Daniel|year=1983|title=Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-12232-001|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1017–1028|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017|issn=0022-3514}}</ref>

Kavanagh and Hausfeld reported that "induced moods"{{technical inline|date=July 2023}} did not change the expectation of {{clarify|text=their|reason=whose?|date=July 2023}} confidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kavanagh|first1=David|last2=Hausfeld|first2=Steven|date=June 1986|title=Physical Performance and Self-Efficacy under Happy and Sad Moods|journal=Journal of Sport Psychology|volume=8|issue=2|pages=112–123|doi=10.1123/jsp.8.2.112|issn=0163-433X}}</ref>

Bandura argued that a person's perceived confidence indicates capability rather than their "physiological arousal condition." It is a state of mind; if people do not believe that they are capable of coping then they experience disruption which lowers their confidence about their performance. Anxiety symptoms are not related to "frightful cognition," but to the individual's self-confidence to manage them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kent|first1=Gerry|last2=Gibbons|first2=Rachel|date=March 1987|title=Self-efficacy and the control of anxious cognitions|journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=33–40|doi=10.1016/0005-7916(87)90069-3|pmid=3558850}}</ref>

==Confidence bias==
There are several debates concerning the overconfidence phenomenon and what its source is.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harvey|first=Nigel|s2cid=8645740|date=1997-05-01|title=Confidence in judgment|url=https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613(97)01014-0|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=78–82|doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(97)01014-0|issn=1364-6613|pmid=21223868}}</ref> It is suggested{{By whom|date=July 2023}} that the confidence bias can be explained by a noisy conversion of objective evidence (observation) into subjective estimates (judgment), where noise is defined as the mixing of memories during the storing (observing/learning) and retrieval process (remembering/judgment).<ref name="HilbertPsychBull">{{cite journal|first=Martin|last=Hilbert|year=2012|title=Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human decision making|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=138|number=2|pages=211–237|doi=10.1037/a0025940 |pmid=22122235 |url=https://martinhilbert.net/HilbertPsychBull.pdf}}</ref> The information-theoretic logic behind this explanation is very similar to the mechanism that can also lead to the conservatism bias and holds that we mix true and false evidence during storage and retrieval of evidence to and from our memories. The confidence bias results because as judges we "look inside our memory" (evaluate our confidence) and find evidence that is more extreme than when we retrieve evidence for our judgements (which are conservative due to the mixing of extreme values during retrieval). This is a sufficient mechanism to generate both overconfidence (in situations where judges are very sure) and underconfidence (in cases when judges acknowledge they lack the required knowledge).

Evolutionary models explain that "counterintuitively, overconfidence maximizes individual fitness and populations tend to become overconfident, as long as benefits from contested resources are sufficiently large compared with the cost of competition".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Dominic D.P.|last2=Fowler|first2=James H.|date=2011-09-14|title=The evolution of overconfidence|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10384/|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=477|issue=7364|pages=317–320|doi=10.1038/nature10384|pmid=21921915|issn=1476-4687|arxiv=0909.4043|bibcode=2011Natur.477..317J|s2cid=4384687}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Social:Assertiveness}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Dunning–Kruger effect}}
* {{annotated link|Emotional bias}}
* {{annotated link|Medicine:Grandiose delusions}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Hubris}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Icarus complex}}
* {{annotated link|Unsolved:Law of attraction (New Thought)|Law of attraction}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Narcissism}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Overconfidence effect}}
* {{annotated link|Security}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Self-serving bias}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Shyness}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Vanity}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Narcissism}}


[[Category:Narcissism]]

eo:Fido
fi:Luottamus

{{Sourceattribution|Confidence}}