Biology:Ectogenesis: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Growth of an organism in an artificial environment}}
'''Ectogenesis''' (from the [[Social:Greek language|Greek]] ''ἐκτός'', "outside", and ''genesis'') is the growth of an organism in an artificial environment,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ectogenesis |encyclopedia=Webster's New World College Dictionary |publisher=Wiley Publishing |url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/ectogenesis |url-status=live|access-date=7 May 2024 |date=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104201752/https://www.yourdictionary.com/ectogenesis |archive-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> outside the body in which it would normally be found, such as the growth of an [[Biology:Embryo|embryo]] or [[Biology:Fetus|fetus]] outside the mother's body, or the growth of bacteria outside the body of a host.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ectogenesis |encyclopedia=Collins English Dictionary |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/Ectogenesis |url-status=live|access-date=7 May 2024 |date=<!--1 January-->2011 |edition=Complete and Unabridged 11th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507014420/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ectogenesis |archive-date=7 May 2024}}</ref> The term was coined by British scientist [[Biography:J. B. S. Haldane|J. B. S. Haldane]] in 1924.<ref>{{cite web |last=Istvan |first=Zoltan |date=4 August 2014 |title=Artificial Wombs Are Coming, but the Controversy Is Already Here |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/artificial-wombs-are-coming-and-the-controversys-already-here/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404143811/https://www.vice.com/en/article/8qx8kk/artificial-wombs-are-coming-and-the-controversys-already-here |archive-date=4 April 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024 |work=Motherboard}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=James |first=David N. |date=1 January 1987 |title=Ectogenesis: a reply to Singer and Wells |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x |url-status=live |journal=Bioethics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=80–99 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x |pmid=11649763 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104201810/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x |archive-date=4 November 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
'''Ectogenesis''' (from the [[Social:Greek language|Greek]] ''ἐκτός'', "outside," and ''genesis'') is the growth of an organism in an artificial environment<ref>[http://www.yourdictionary.com/ectogenesis yourdictionary.com > ectogenesis] In turn citing: Webster's New World College Dictionary, 2010 by Wiley Publishing</ref> outside the body in which it would normally be found, such as the growth of an [[Biology:Embryo|embryo]] or [[Biology:Fetus|fetus]] outside the mother's body, or the growth of bacteria outside the body of a host.<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/Ectogenesis ectogenesis]. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved September 23, 2012</ref> The term was coined by British scientist J.B.S. Haldane in 1924.<ref>{{cite web |title=Artificial Wombs Are Coming, but the Controversy Is Already Here |url=http://motherboard.vice.com/read/artificial-wombs-are-coming-and-the-controversys-already-here |work=Motherboard |date=4 August 2014 |accessdate=16 November 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=DAVID N.|last=JAMES|title=Ectogenesis: A Reply to Singer and Wells|date=1 January 1987|journal=Bioethics|volume=1|issue=1|pages=80–99|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x|pmid = 11649763}}</ref>


==Human embryos and fetuses==
== Human embryos and fetuses ==
{{Further|Engineering:Artificial uterus}}
Ectogenesis of human embryos and fetuses would require an artificial uterus. An artificial uterus would have to be supplied with nutrients and oxygen from some source to nurture the fetus, as well as dispose of waste material. There would likely be a need for an interface between such a supplier, filling this function of the [[Biology:Placenta|placenta]]. As a replacement organ, an artificial uterus could be used to assist women with damaged, diseased or removed uteri to allow the fetus to be conceived to term. It also has the potential to move the threshold of fetal viability to a much earlier stage of pregnancy. This would have implications for the ongoing controversy regarding human reproductive rights. Ectogenesis could also be a means by which homosexual, impotent, disabled, and single men and women could have genetic [[Biology:Offspring|offspring]] without the use of surrogate pregnancy or a sperm donor, and allow women to have children without going through the pregnancy cycle.<ref name="Moran 2023">{{cite magazine |last=Moran |first=Rosalind |date=3 April 2023 |title=Artificial Wombs Will Change Abortion Rights Forever |url=https://www.wired.com/story/ectogenesis-reproductive-health-abortion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416152606/https://www.wired.com/story/ectogenesis-reproductive-health-abortion/ |archive-date=16 April 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024 |magazine=Wired |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>
Ectogenesis of human embryos and fetuses would require an [[Engineering:Artificial uterus|artificial uterus]]. An artificial uterus would have to be supplied with nutrients and oxygen from some source to nurture the fetus, as well as dispose of waste material. There would likely be a need for an interface between such a supplier, filling this function of the [[Biology:Placenta|placenta]]. An artificial uterus, as a replacement organ, could be used to assist women with damaged, diseased or removed uteri to allow the fetus to be conceived to term. It also has the potential to move the threshold of fetal viability to a much earlier stage of pregnancy. This would have implications for the ongoing controversy regarding human reproductive rights.
 
Ectogenesis could also be a means by which homosexual, impotent, disabled and single men and women could have genetic [[Biology:Offspring|offspring]] without the use of surrogate pregnancy or a sperm donor, and allow women to have children without going through the pregnancy cycle.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Moran |first=Rosalind |title=Artificial Wombs Will Change Abortion Rights Forever |language=en-US |work=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/ectogenesis-reproductive-health-abortion/ |access-date=2023-10-25 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>


== Synthetic embryo ==
== Synthetic embryo ==
[[File:Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs.jpg|thumb|"Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ''ex utero'' from mouse naive [[Biology:Embryonic stem cell|ESCs]]"<ref name="10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028"/>]]
[[File:Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs.jpg|thumb|Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ''ex utero'' from mouse naive embryonic stem cell <ref name="h951">{{cite journal | last=Bayerl | first=Jonathan | last2=Ayyash | first2=Muneef | last3=Shani | first3=Tom | last4=Manor | first4=Yair Shlomo | last5=Gafni | first5=Ohad | last6=Massarwa | first6=Rada | last7=Kalma | first7=Yael | last8=Aguilera-Castrejon | first8=Alejandro | last9=Zerbib | first9=Mirie | last10=Amir | first10=Hadar | last11=Sheban | first11=Daoud | last12=Geula | first12=Shay | last13=Mor | first13=Nofar | last14=Weinberger | first14=Leehee | last15=Naveh Tassa | first15=Segev | last16=Krupalnik | first16=Vladislav | last17=Oldak | first17=Bernardo | last18=Livnat | first18=Nir | last19=Tarazi | first19=Shadi | last20=Tawil | first20=Shadi | last21=Wildschutz | first21=Emilie | last22=Ashouokhi | first22=Shahd | last23=Lasman | first23=Lior | last24=Rotter | first24=Varda | last25=Hanna | first25=Suhair | last26=Ben-Yosef | first26=Dalit | last27=Novershtern | first27=Noa | last28=Viukov | first28=Sergey | last29=Hanna | first29=Jacob H. | title=Principles of signaling pathway modulation for enhancing human naive pluripotency induction | journal=Cell Stem Cell | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=28 | issue=9 | year=2021 | issn=1934-5909 | doi=10.1016/j.stem.2021.04.001 | doi-access=free | pages=1549–1565.e12 | url=https://www.cell.com/article/S1934590921001582/pdf | access-date=2025-07-09| pmc=8423434 }}</ref>]]
In 2022, Jacob Hanna and his team at the Weizmann Institute of Science created early "embryo-like structures'" from mice [[Biology:Stem cell|stem cell]]s.<ref name="synthem"/><ref name="cell">{{cite web |title=¬Post-Gastrulation Synthetic Embryos Generated Ex Utero from Mouse Naïve ESCs |website=Cell |date=August 1, 2022 |url=https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674%2822%2900981-3#relatedArticles |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804050726/https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674%2822%2900981-3 |archive-date=August 4, 2022}}</ref> The world's first synthetic embryo does not require sperm, eggs nor fertilization and were grown from only [[Biology:Embryonic stem cell|embryonic stem cell]]s (ESCs) or also from  [[Biology:Stem cell|stem cell]]s other than ESCs.<ref name="synthem"/> The structure had an intestinal tract, early brain and a beating heart and a placenta with a yolk sac around the embryo.<ref name="synthem"/> The researchers said it could lead to better understanding of organ and tissue development, new sources of cells and tissues for human transplantation.<ref name="synthem"/> However, human synthetic embryos are a long ways off.<ref name="synthem">{{cite web |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos |title=Scientists create world's first 'synthetic embryos' |date=August 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803214044/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos |archive-date= August 3, 2022}}</ref> Their research was published by ''Cell'' on August 1, 2022.<ref name="10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028">{{cite journal |last1=Tarazi |first1=Shadi |last2=Aguilera-Castrejon |first2=Alejandro |last3=Joubran |first3=Carine |last4=Ghanem |first4=Nadir |last5=Ashouokhi |first5=Shahd |last6=Roncato |first6=Francesco |last7=Wildschutz |first7=Emilie |last8=Haddad |first8=Montaser |last9=Oldak |first9=Bernardo |last10=Gomez-Cesar |first10=Elidet |last11=Livnat |first11=Nir |last12=Viukov |first12=Sergey |last13=Lokshtanov |first13=Dmitry |last14=Naveh-Tassa |first14=Segev |last15=Rose |first15=Max |last16=Hanna |first16=Suhair |last17=Raanan |first17=Calanit |last18=Brenner |first18=Ori |last19=Kedmi |first19=Merav |last20=Keren-Shaul |first20=Hadas |last21=Lapidot |first21=Tsvee |last22=Maza |first22=Itay |last23=Novershtern |first23=Noa |last24=Hanna |first24=Jacob H. |title=Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs |journal=Cell |date=1 September 2022 |volume=185 |issue=18 |pages=3290–3306.e25 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028 |pmid=35988542 |pmc=9439721 |language=English |issn=0092-8674|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 2022, Jacob Hanna and his team at the Weizmann Institute of Science created early "embryo-like structures'" from mice [[Biology:Stem cell|stem cell]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tarazi |first1=Shadi |last2=Aguilera-Castrejon |first2=Alejandro |last3=Joubran |first3=Carine |last4=Ghanem |first4=Nadir |last5=Ashouokhi |first5=Shahd |last6=Roncato |first6=Francesco |last7=Wildschutz |first7=Emilie |last8=Haddad |first8=Montaser |last9=Oldak |first9=Bernardo |last10=Gomez-Cesar |first10=Elidet |last11=Livnat |first11=Nir |last12=Viukov |first12=Sergey |last13=Lokshtanov |first13=Dmitry |last14=Naveh-Tassa |first14=Segev |last15=Rose |first15=Max |date=1 August 2022<!--1 September 2022--> |title=Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs |journal=Cell |volume=185 |issue=18 |pages=3290–3306.e25 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028 |issn=1097-4172 |pmc=9439721 |pmid=35988542 }}</ref><ref name="Sample 2022">{{cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=3 August 2022 |title=Scientists create world's first 'synthetic embryos' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803214044/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos |archive-date=3 August 2022 |access-date=7 May 2024 |work=The Guardian |issn=1756-3224}}</ref> Their research was published by ''Cell'' on 1 August 2022. The world's first synthetic embryo does not require sperm, eggs, nor fertilization, and were grown from only [[Biology:Embryonic stem cell|embryonic stem cell]]s (ESCs) or also from stem cells other than ESCs.<ref name="Sample 2022" /> The structure had an intestinal tract, early brain, and a beating heart and a placenta with a yolk sac around the embryo.<ref name="Sample 2022" /> The researchers said it could lead to better understanding of organ and tissue development, new sources of cells and tissues for human transplantation,<ref name="Sample 2022" /> although human synthetic embryos are a long ways off.<ref name="Sample 2022" />


Also in August 2022, a study described how [[Organization:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]] and the same Weizmann Institute of Science scientists<ref name="10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028" /> created a synthetic embryo with a brain and a beating heart by using stem cells (also some [[Biology:Stem cell|stem cell]]s other than ESCs). No human eggs nor sperm were used. They showed natural-like development and some survived until day 8.5 where early [[Biology:Organogenesis|organogenesis]], including [[Biology:Human embryonic development#Nervous system|formation of foundations of a brain]], occurs. Scientists hope it can be used to create synthetic human organs for transplantation.<ref name="cambridge">{{cite web |url=https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/synthetic-embryo-with-brain-and-beating-heart-created-by-uni-9271220/ |title=Synthetic embryo with brain and beating heart created by University of Cambridge scientists |website=Cambridge Independent. |date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917000013/https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/synthetic-embryo-with-brain-and-beating-heart-created-by-uni-9271220/ |archive-date=September 17, 2022}}</ref><ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3"/>
Also in August 2022, a study described how [[Organization:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]], alongside the same Weizmann Institute of Science scientists,<ref name="Tarazi et al. 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Tarazi |first1=Shadi |last2=Aguilera-Castrejon |first2=Alejandro |last3=Joubran |first3=Carine |last4=Ghanem |first4=Nadir |last5=Ashouokhi |first5=Shahd |last6=Roncato |first6=Francesco |last7=Wildschutz |first7=Emilie |last8=Haddad |first8=Montaser |last9=Oldak |first9=Bernardo |last10=Gomez-Cesar |first10=Elidet |last11=Livnat |first11=Nir |last12=Viukov |first12=Sergey |last13=Lokshtanov |first13=Dmitry |last14=Naveh-Tassa |first14=Segev |last15=Rose |first15=Max |last16=Hanna |first16=Suhair |last17=Raanan |first17=Calanit |last18=Brenner |first18=Ori |last19=Kedmi |first19=Merav |last20=Keren-Shaul |first20=Hadas |last21=Lapidot |first21=Tsvee |last22=Maza |first22=Itay |last23=Novershtern |first23=Noa |last24=Hanna |first24=Jacob H. |title=Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs |journal=Cell |date=1 September 2022 |volume=185 |issue=18 |pages=3290–3306.e25 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028 |pmid=35988542 |pmc=9439721 |issn=0092-8674|doi-access=free}}</ref> created a synthetic mouse embryo with a brain and a beating heart by using stem cells (also some stem cells other than ESCs). No human eggs nor sperm were used. They showed natural-like development and some survived until day 8.5 where early [[Biology:Organogenesis|organogenesis]], including formation of foundations of a brain, occurs. Scientists hope it can be used to create synthetic human organs for transplantation.<ref name="Amadei et al. 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Amadei |first1=Gianluca |last2=Handford |first2=Charlotte E. |last3=Qiu |first3=Chengxiang |last4=De Jonghe |first4=Joachim |last5=Greenfeld |first5=Hannah |last6=Tran |first6=Martin |last7=Martin |first7=Beth K. |last8=Chen |first8=Dong-Yuan |last9=Aguilera-Castrejon |first9=Alejandro |last10=Hanna |first10=Jacob H. |last11=Elowitz |first11=Michael B. |last12=Hollfelder |first12=Florian |last13=Shendure |first13=Jay |last14=Glover |first14=David M. |last15=Zernicka-Goetz |first15=Magdalena |date=25 August 2022<!--October 2022--> |title=Embryo model completes gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis |journal=Nature |volume=610 |issue=7930 |pages=143–153 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=9534772 |pmid=36007540 |s2cid=251843659 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Brackley 2022">{{cite web |last=Brackley |first=Paul |date=1 September 2022 |title=Synthetic embryo with brain and beating heart created by University of Cambridge scientists |url=https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/synthetic-embryo-with-brain-and-beating-heart-created-by-uni-9271220/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917000013/https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/synthetic-embryo-with-brain-and-beating-heart-created-by-uni-9271220/ |archive-date=17 September 2022 |access-date=7 May 2024 |website=Cambridge Independent}}</ref>


The embryos grew ''[[In vitro|in vitro]]'' and subsequently ''ex utero'' in [[Engineering:Artificial womb#Research and development|an artificial womb]] published the year before by the Hanna team in Nature,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aguilera-Castrejon |first=Alejandro |last2=Oldak |first2=Bernardo |last3=Shani |first3=Tom |last4=Ghanem |first4=Nadir |last5=Itzkovich |first5=Chen |last6=Slomovich |first6=Sharon |last7=Tarazi |first7=Shadi |last8=Bayerl |first8=Jonathan |last9=Chugaeva |first9=Valeriya |last10=Ayyash |first10=Muneef |last11=Ashouokhi |first11=Shahd |last12=Sheban |first12=Daoud |last13=Livnat |first13=Nir |last14=Lasman |first14=Lior |last15=Viukov |first15=Sergey |date=May 2021 |title=Ex utero mouse embryogenesis from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03416-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=593 |issue=7857 |pages=119–124 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03416-3 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and was used in both studies. The two studies were considered a milestone achievement, but the research is controversial. Potential applications include "uncovering the role of different genes in birth defects or developmental disorders", gaining "direct insight into the origins of a new life", "understand[ing] why some pregnancies fail", and developing sources "of organs and tissues for people who need them".<ref name="cambridge"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willyard |first1=Cassandra |title=Mouse embryos grown without eggs or sperm: why, and what's next? |journal=Nature |pages=230–231 |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-02334-2 |date=25 August 2022|volume=609 |issue=7926 |pmid=36008716 |bibcode=2022Natur.609..230W |s2cid=251843735 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Synthetischer Embryo entwickelt Organe |url=https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/synthetischer-embryo-entwickelt-organe |website=www.sciencemediacenter.de |access-date=16 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Holcombe |first1=Madeline |title=A synthetic embryo, made without sperm or egg, could lead to infertility treatments |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/05/world/synthetic-embryos-stem-cells-scn/index.html |access-date=16 September 2022 |work=CNN}}</ref> The term 'synthetic embryo' in the title of the second study was later changed to the alternative term, "Embryo model".<ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3">{{cite journal |last1=Amadei |first1=Gianluca |last2=Handford |first2=Charlotte E. |last3=Qiu |first3=Chengxiang |last4=De Jonghe |first4=Joachim |last5=Greenfeld |first5=Hannah |last6=Tran |first6=Martin |last7=Martin |first7=Beth K. |last8=Chen |first8=Dong-Yuan |last9=Aguilera-Castrejon |first9=Alejandro |last10=Hanna |first10=Jacob H. |last11=Elowitz |first11=Michael |last12=Hollfelder |first12=Florian |last13=Shendure |first13=Jay |last14=Glover |first14=David M. |last15=Zernicka-Goetz |first15=Magdalena |title=Synthetic embryos complete gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis |journal=Nature |date=25 August 2022 |volume=610 |issue=7930 |pages=143–153 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3 |pmid=36007540 |pmc=9534772 |s2cid=251843659 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The embryos grew ''[[In vitro|in vitro]]'' and subsequently ''ex utero'' in an artificial womb published the year before by the Hanna team in ''Nature'',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilera-Castrejon |first1=Alejandro |last2=Oldak |first2=Bernardo |last3=Shani |first3=Tom |last4=Ghanem |first4=Nadir |last5=Itzkovich |first5=Chen |last6=Slomovich |first6=Sharon |last7=Tarazi |first7=Shadi |last8=Bayerl |first8=Jonathan |last9=Chugaeva |first9=Valeriya |last10=Ayyash |first10=Muneef |last11=Ashouokhi |first11=Shahd |last12=Sheban |first12=Daoud |last13=Livnat |first13=Nir |last14=Lasman |first14=Lior |last15=Viukov |first15=Sergey |date=May 2021 |title=Ex utero mouse embryogenesis from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03416-3 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=593 |issue=7857 |pages=119–124 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03416-3 |pmid=33731940 |issn=1476-4687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213033317/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03416-3 |archive-date=13 February 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and was used in both studies. Potential applications include "uncovering the role of different genes in birth defects or developmental disorders", gaining "direct insight into the origins of a new life", "understand[ing] why some pregnancies fail",<ref name="Brackley 2022"/> and developing sources "of organs and tissues for people who need them".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willyard |first1=Cassandra |date=25 August 2022 |title=Mouse embryos grown without eggs or sperm: why, and what's next? |journal=Nature |volume=609 |issue=7926 |pages=230–231 |bibcode=2022Natur.609..230W |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-02334-2 |pmid=36008716 |s2cid=251843735 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=25 August 2022 |title=Synthetischer Embryo entwickelt Organe |trans-title=Synthetic embryo develops organs |url=https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/synthetischer-embryo-entwickelt-organe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205143744/https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/synthetischer-embryo-entwickelt-organe/ |archive-date=5 December 2023 |access-date=7 May 2024 |website=Science Media Center Germany |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Holcombe |first1=Madeline |date=5 September 2022 |title=A synthetic embryo, made without sperm or egg, could lead to infertility treatments |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/05/world/synthetic-embryos-stem-cells-scn/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116232516/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/05/world/synthetic-embryos-stem-cells-scn/index.html |archive-date=16 November 2023 |access-date=7 May 2024 |work=CNN}}</ref> The term "synthetic embryo" in the title of the second study was later changed to the alternative term "embryo model".<ref name="Amadei et al. 2022"/>


On 6 September 2023, Nature published research that the Weizmann Institute team created the first complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models<ref name="weizmann2023">{{cite web |date=6 September 2023 |title=Complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models from naïve ES cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06604-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906152409/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06604-5 |archive-date=6 September 2023 |website=Nature |publisher=Nature (journal)}}</ref> from naïve ES cells expanded in special naive conditions developed by the same team in 2021.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bayerl |first=Jonathan |last2=Ayyash |first2=Muneef |last3=Shani |first3=Tom |last4=Manor |first4=Yair Shlomo |last5=Gafni |first5=Ohad |last6=Massarwa |first6=Rada |last7=Kalma |first7=Yael |last8=Aguilera-Castrejon |first8=Alejandro |last9=Zerbib |first9=Mirie |last10=Amir |first10=Hadar |last11=Sheban |first11=Daoud |last12=Geula |first12=Shay |last13=Mor |first13=Nofar |last14=Weinberger |first14=Leehee |last15=Naveh Tassa |first15=Segev |date=2021-09-02 |title=Principles of signaling pathway modulation for enhancing human naive pluripotency induction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1934590921001582 |journal=Cell Stem Cell |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1549–1565.e12 |doi=10.1016/j.stem.2021.04.001 |issn=1934-5909|doi-access=free |pmc=8423434 }}</ref> It uses reprogrammed genetically unmodified naïve stem cells to become any type of body tissue.<ref name="weizmann2023"/><ref name="bbc2023"/> The embryo model (termed and abbreviated as SEM) mimics all the key structures like a "textbook image" of a human day-14 embryo.<ref name="bbc2023">{{cite web |title=Scientists grow whole model of human embryo, without sperm or egg |website=BBC |date=September 6, 2023 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66715669 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906150256/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66715669 |archive-date=September 6, 2023}}</ref><ref name="weizmann2023"/>
On 6 September 2023, ''Nature'' published research that the Weizmann Institute team created the first complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models,<ref name="Oldak et al. 2023">{{cite journal |last1=Oldak |first1=Bernardo |last2=Wildschutz |first2=Emilie |last3=Bondarenko |first3=Vladyslav |last4=Comar |first4=Mehmet-Yunus |last5=Zhao |first5=Cheng |last6=Aguilera-Castrejon |first6=Alejandro |last7=Tarazi |first7=Shadi |last8=Viukov |first8=Sergey |last9=Pham |first9=Thi Xuan Ai |last10=Ashouokhi |first10=Shahd |last11=Lokshtanov |first11=Dmitry |last12=Roncato |first12=Francesco |last13=Ariel |first13=Eitan |last14=Rose |first14=Max |last15=Livnat |first15=Nir |date=6 September 2023<!--October 2023--> |title=Complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models from naive ES cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06604-5 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=622 |issue=7983 |pages=562–573 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06604-5 |pmid=37673118 |issn=1476-4687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906152409/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06604-5 |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=7 May 2024|pmc=10584686 }}</ref> using naïve ES cells expanded in special naive conditions developed by the same team in 2021.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bayerl |first1=Jonathan |last2=Ayyash |first2=Muneef |last3=Shani |first3=Tom |last4=Manor |first4=Yair Shlomo |last5=Gafni |first5=Ohad |last6=Massarwa |first6=Rada |last7=Kalma |first7=Yael |last8=Aguilera-Castrejon |first8=Alejandro |last9=Zerbib |first9=Mirie |last10=Amir |first10=Hadar |last11=Sheban |first11=Daoud |last12=Geula |first12=Shay |last13=Mor |first13=Nofar |last14=Weinberger |first14=Leehee |last15=Naveh Tassa |first15=Segev |date=2 September 2021 |title=Principles of signaling pathway modulation for enhancing human naive pluripotency induction |journal=Cell Stem Cell |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1549–1565.e12 |doi=10.1016/j.stem.2021.04.001 |issn=1934-5909 |pmc=8423434 |doi-access=free|pmid=33915080 }}</ref> It also uses reprogrammed genetically unmodified naïve stem cells to become any type of body tissue. Chemicals were then used to coax these stem cells into becoming four types of cell found in the earliest stages of the human embryo. The mixture began assembling itself into a structure that resembles, but is not identical to, a human embryo.<ref name="Oldak et al. 2023"/><ref name="Gallagher 2023">{{cite news |last=Gallagher |first=James |date=6 September 2023 |title=Scientists grow whole model of human embryo, without sperm or egg |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66715669 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507021106/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66715669 |archive-date=7 May 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024 |work=BBC News }}</ref> The embryo model (termed and abbreviated as SEM) mimics all the key structures like a "textbook image" of a human day-14 embryo.<ref name="Oldak et al. 2023"/><ref name="Gallagher 2023"/>


==Bioethical considerations==
== Bioethical considerations ==
The development of artificial uteri and ectogenesis raises a few [[Philosophy:Bioethics|bioethical]] and legal considerations, and also has important implications for reproductive rights and the abortion debate.
The development of artificial uteri and ectogenesis raises a few bioethical and legal considerations, and also has important implications for reproductive rights and the abortion debate.<ref name="Moran 2023"/>


Artificial uteri may expand the range of fetal viability, raising questions about the role that fetal viability plays within abortion law. Within severance theory, for example, abortion rights only include the right to remove the fetus, and do not always extend to the termination of the fetus. In the abortion debate, the death of the fetus has historically been considered an unavoidable side effect, rather than the primary goal, of an abortion.<ref name=":0" /> If transferring the fetus from a woman's womb to an artificial uterus becomes possible, then the choice to terminate a pregnancy in this way could result in a living child.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Randall|first=Vernellia|author2=Randall, Tshaka C.|title=Built in Obsolescence: The Coming End to the Abortion Debate|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|date=22 March 2008|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1112367|s2cid=57105464|url=https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=vernellia_randall}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chessen|first1=Matt|title=Artificial Wombs Could Outlaw Abortion|url=http://www.mattlesnake.com/2013/03/02/artificial-wombs-could-outlaw-abortion/|website=Mattlesnake.com|date=2013-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mathison|first=Eric|author2=Davis, Jeremy|title=Is there a right to the death of the foetus?|journal=Bioethics|year=2017|volume=31|issue=4|pages=313–320|doi=10.1111/bioe.12331|pmid=28182294|s2cid=3808881|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bioe.12331}}</ref> Thus the pregnancy could be aborted at any point – which respects the woman's right to bodily autonomy – without impinging on the moral status of the embryo or fetus.<ref name=":0" />
Artificial uteri may expand the range of fetal viability, raising questions about the role that fetal viability plays within abortion law.<ref name="Moran 2023"/> For example, within severance theory, abortion rights only include the right to remove the fetus, and do not always extend to the termination of the fetus.<ref name="Moran 2023"/> In the abortion debate, the death of the fetus has historically been considered an unavoidable side effect rather than the primary goal of an abortion.<ref name="Moran 2023"/> If transferring the fetus from a woman's womb to an artificial uterus becomes possible, then the choice to terminate a pregnancy in this way could result in a living child.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Randall |first1=Vernellia |last2=Randall |first2=Tshaka C. |date=22 March 2008 |title=Built in Obsolescence: The Coming End to the Abortion Debate |url=https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=vernellia_randall |url-status=live |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1112367 |issn=1556-5068 |s2cid=57105464 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005071011/https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=vernellia_randall |archive-date=5 October 2009 |access-date=7 May 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chessen |first1=Matt |date=2 March 2013 |title=Artificial Wombs Could Outlaw Abortion |url=http://www.mattlesnake.com/2013/03/02/artificial-wombs-could-outlaw-abortion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204024132/http://www.mattlesnake.com/2013/03/02/artificial-wombs-could-outlaw-abortion/ |archive-date=4 December 2013 |access-date=7 May 2024 |website=Mattlesnake.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mathison |first1=Eric |last2=Davis |first2=Jeremy |date=9 February 2017<!--May 2017--> |title=Is There a Right to the Death of the Foetus? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313535795 |url-status=live |journal=Bioethics |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=313–320 |doi=10.1111/bioe.12331 |issn=0269-9702 |pmid=28182294 |s2cid=3808881 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128234436/https://philpapers.org/archive/MATITA-5.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024}}</ref> Thus, the pregnancy could be aborted at any point, which respects the woman's right to bodily autonomy, without impinging on the moral status of the embryo or fetus.<ref name="Moran 2023"/>


There are also theoretical concerns that children who develop in an artificial uterus may lack "some essential bond with their mothers that other children have";<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smajdor|first=Anna|title=The Moral Imperative for Ectogenesis|journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics|date=Summer 2007|volume=16|issue=3|pages=336–45|pmid=17695628|url=http://annasmajdor.me.uk/ectogenesis_final.pdf|doi=10.1017/s0963180107070405|s2cid=36754378|access-date=2013-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911055853/http://www.annasmajdor.me.uk/ectogenesis_final.pdf|archive-date=2013-09-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> a secondary issue to woman's rights over their own body.
There are theoretical concerns that children who develop in an artificial uterus may lack "some essential bond with their mothers that other children have",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smajdor |first=Anna |date=Summer 2007 |title=The Moral Imperative for Ectogenesis |url=http://annasmajdor.me.uk/ectogenesis_final.pdf |url-status=usurped |journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=336–45 |doi=10.1017/s0963180107070405 |pmid=17695628 |s2cid=36754378 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911055853/http://www.annasmajdor.me.uk/ectogenesis_final.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2013 |access-date=7 May 2024}}</ref> a secondary issue to woman's rights over their own body. In the 1970 book ''The Dialectic of Sex'', feminist Shulamith Firestone wrote that differences in biological reproductive roles are a source of gender inequality. Firestone singled out pregnancy and childbirth, making the argument that an artificial womb would free "women from the tyranny of their reproductive biology."<ref>{{cite news |last=Chemaly |first=Soraya |date=23 February 2012 |title=What Do Artificial Wombs Mean for Women? |url=http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2012/02/23/what-do-artificial-wombs-mean-women/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119084351/http://rewirenewsgroup.com/2012/02/23/what-do-artificial-wombs-mean-women/ |archive-date=19 November 2023 |access-date=7 May 2024 |work=RH Reality Check}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Christine |date=2003 |title=Why Not Artificial Wombs? |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/TNA03-Rosen.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126204357/https://www.thenewatlantis.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-pdfs/TNA03-Rosen.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2023 |access-date=7 May 2024 |journal=The New Atlantis |pages=67–76 |issue=Fall 2003 |pmid=15586953 |issn=1555-5569}}</ref>


In the 1970 book ''The Dialectic of Sex'', feminist Shulamith Firestone wrote that differences in biological reproductive roles are a source of gender inequality. Firestone singled out pregnancy and childbirth, making the argument that an artificial womb would free "women from the tyranny of their reproductive biology."<ref>{{cite news|last=Chemaly|first=Soraya|title=What Do Artificial Wombs Mean for Women?|url=http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2012/02/23/what-do-artificial-wombs-mean-women/|newspaper=RH Reality Check|date=23 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Rosen|first=Christine|title=Why Not Artificial Wombs?|url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/TNA03-Rosen.pdf|newspaper=The New Atlantis|date=2003}}</ref>
== See also ==
 
* [[Biology:Amniotic fluid|Amniotic fluid]]
==See also==
* [[Medicine:Apheresis|Apheresis]]
* [[Medicine:Ectopic pregnancy|Ectopic pregnancy]]
* [[Medicine:Ectopic pregnancy|Ectopic pregnancy]]
* Endometrium
* Endometrium
* IVF
* [[Engineering:Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation|Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation]]
* [[Biology:Placenta|Placenta]]
* [[Biology:Uterus|Uterus]]
* [[Biology:Amniotic fluid|Amniotic fluid]]
* [[Medicine:Apheresis|Apheresis]]
* [[Engineering:Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation|ECMO]]
* [[Engineering:Hemodialysis|Hemodialysis]]
* [[Engineering:Hemodialysis|Hemodialysis]]
* In vitro fertilization
* [[Engineering:Liver dialysis|Liver dialysis]]
* [[Engineering:Liver dialysis|Liver dialysis]]
* TPN
* [[Biology:Placenta|Placenta]]
* [[Engineering:Tissue engineering|Tissue engineering]]
* [[Engineering:Tissue engineering|Tissue engineering]]
* Total parenteral nutrition
* [[Biology:Uterus|Uterus]]


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist}}
 
==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Coleman|first=Stephen|title=The Ethics Of Artificial Uteruses: Implications For Reproduction And Abortion|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate Pub.|location=Burlington, VT|isbn=978-0-7546-5051-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5MKI-OHMKsC}}
*{{cite book|editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Gelfand|title=Ectogenesis: Artificial Womb Technology and the Future of Human Reproduction|year=2006|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam [u.a.]|isbn=978-90-420-2081-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GC25LtSM2tMC}}


== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Coleman |first=Stephen |title=The Ethics of Artificial Uteruses: Implications for Reproduction and Abortion |date=2004 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |location=Burlington, Vermont |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031225423/https://books.google.com/books?id=k5MKI-OHMKsC |archive-date=31 October 2023 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7546-5051-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5MKI-OHMKsC}}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Scott |editor-last1=Gelfand |editor-last2=Shook |editor-first2=John R. |title=Ectogenesis: Artificial Womb Technology and the Future of Human Reproduction |date=2006 |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam<!--[u.a.]--> |isbn=978-90-420-2081-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GC25LtSM2tMC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101221323/https://books.google.com/books?id=GC25LtSM2tMC|archive-date=1 November 2023|access-date=7 May 2024}}


[[Category:Developmental biology]]
[[Category:Developmental biology]]


{{Sourceattribution|Ectogenesis}}
{{Sourceattribution|Ectogenesis}}

Latest revision as of 04:37, 17 August 2025

Ectogenesis (from the Greek ἐκτός, "outside", and genesis) is the growth of an organism in an artificial environment,[1] outside the body in which it would normally be found, such as the growth of an embryo or fetus outside the mother's body, or the growth of bacteria outside the body of a host.[2] The term was coined by British scientist J. B. S. Haldane in 1924.[3][4]

Human embryos and fetuses

Ectogenesis of human embryos and fetuses would require an artificial uterus. An artificial uterus would have to be supplied with nutrients and oxygen from some source to nurture the fetus, as well as dispose of waste material. There would likely be a need for an interface between such a supplier, filling this function of the placenta. As a replacement organ, an artificial uterus could be used to assist women with damaged, diseased or removed uteri to allow the fetus to be conceived to term. It also has the potential to move the threshold of fetal viability to a much earlier stage of pregnancy. This would have implications for the ongoing controversy regarding human reproductive rights. Ectogenesis could also be a means by which homosexual, impotent, disabled, and single men and women could have genetic offspring without the use of surrogate pregnancy or a sperm donor, and allow women to have children without going through the pregnancy cycle.[5]

Synthetic embryo

Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive embryonic stem cell [6]

In 2022, Jacob Hanna and his team at the Weizmann Institute of Science created early "embryo-like structures'" from mice stem cells.[7][8] Their research was published by Cell on 1 August 2022. The world's first synthetic embryo does not require sperm, eggs, nor fertilization, and were grown from only embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or also from stem cells other than ESCs.[8] The structure had an intestinal tract, early brain, and a beating heart and a placenta with a yolk sac around the embryo.[8] The researchers said it could lead to better understanding of organ and tissue development, new sources of cells and tissues for human transplantation,[8] although human synthetic embryos are a long ways off.[8]

Also in August 2022, a study described how University of Cambridge, alongside the same Weizmann Institute of Science scientists,[9] created a synthetic mouse embryo with a brain and a beating heart by using stem cells (also some stem cells other than ESCs). No human eggs nor sperm were used. They showed natural-like development and some survived until day 8.5 where early organogenesis, including formation of foundations of a brain, occurs. Scientists hope it can be used to create synthetic human organs for transplantation.[10][11]

The embryos grew in vitro and subsequently ex utero in an artificial womb published the year before by the Hanna team in Nature,[12] and was used in both studies. Potential applications include "uncovering the role of different genes in birth defects or developmental disorders", gaining "direct insight into the origins of a new life", "understand[ing] why some pregnancies fail",[11] and developing sources "of organs and tissues for people who need them".[13][14][15] The term "synthetic embryo" in the title of the second study was later changed to the alternative term "embryo model".[10]

On 6 September 2023, Nature published research that the Weizmann Institute team created the first complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models,[16] using naïve ES cells expanded in special naive conditions developed by the same team in 2021.[17] It also uses reprogrammed genetically unmodified naïve stem cells to become any type of body tissue. Chemicals were then used to coax these stem cells into becoming four types of cell found in the earliest stages of the human embryo. The mixture began assembling itself into a structure that resembles, but is not identical to, a human embryo.[16][18] The embryo model (termed and abbreviated as SEM) mimics all the key structures like a "textbook image" of a human day-14 embryo.[16][18]

Bioethical considerations

The development of artificial uteri and ectogenesis raises a few bioethical and legal considerations, and also has important implications for reproductive rights and the abortion debate.[5]

Artificial uteri may expand the range of fetal viability, raising questions about the role that fetal viability plays within abortion law.[5] For example, within severance theory, abortion rights only include the right to remove the fetus, and do not always extend to the termination of the fetus.[5] In the abortion debate, the death of the fetus has historically been considered an unavoidable side effect rather than the primary goal of an abortion.[5] If transferring the fetus from a woman's womb to an artificial uterus becomes possible, then the choice to terminate a pregnancy in this way could result in a living child.[19][20][21] Thus, the pregnancy could be aborted at any point, which respects the woman's right to bodily autonomy, without impinging on the moral status of the embryo or fetus.[5]

There are theoretical concerns that children who develop in an artificial uterus may lack "some essential bond with their mothers that other children have",[22] a secondary issue to woman's rights over their own body. In the 1970 book The Dialectic of Sex, feminist Shulamith Firestone wrote that differences in biological reproductive roles are a source of gender inequality. Firestone singled out pregnancy and childbirth, making the argument that an artificial womb would free "women from the tyranny of their reproductive biology."[23][24]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Ectogenesis". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Wiley Publishing. 2010. http://www.yourdictionary.com/ectogenesis. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  2. ↑ "Ectogenesis". Collins English Dictionary (Complete and Unabridged 11th ed.). 2011. http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/Ectogenesis. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  3. ↑ Istvan, Zoltan (4 August 2014). "Artificial Wombs Are Coming, but the Controversy Is Already Here". Motherboard. https://www.vice.com/en/article/artificial-wombs-are-coming-and-the-controversys-already-here/. 
  4. ↑ James, David N. (1 January 1987). "Ectogenesis: a reply to Singer and Wells". Bioethics 1 (1): 80–99. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x. PMID 11649763. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8519.1987.tb00006.x. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Moran, Rosalind (3 April 2023). "Artificial Wombs Will Change Abortion Rights Forever". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. https://www.wired.com/story/ectogenesis-reproductive-health-abortion/. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  6. ↑ Bayerl, Jonathan; Ayyash, Muneef; Shani, Tom; Manor, Yair Shlomo; Gafni, Ohad; Massarwa, Rada; Kalma, Yael; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro et al. (2021). "Principles of signaling pathway modulation for enhancing human naive pluripotency induction". Cell Stem Cell (Elsevier BV) 28 (9): 1549–1565.e12. doi:10.1016/j.stem.2021.04.001. ISSN 1934-5909. PMC 8423434. https://www.cell.com/article/S1934590921001582/pdf. Retrieved 2025-07-09. 
  7. ↑ Tarazi, Shadi; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Joubran, Carine; Ghanem, Nadir; Ashouokhi, Shahd; Roncato, Francesco; Wildschutz, Emilie; Haddad, Montaser et al. (1 August 2022). "Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs". Cell 185 (18): 3290–3306.e25. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028. ISSN 1097-4172. PMID 35988542. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Sample, Ian (3 August 2022). "Scientists create world's first 'synthetic embryos'". The Guardian. ISSN 1756-3224. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos. 
  9. ↑ Tarazi, Shadi; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Joubran, Carine; Ghanem, Nadir; Ashouokhi, Shahd; Roncato, Francesco; Wildschutz, Emilie; Haddad, Montaser et al. (1 September 2022). "Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs". Cell 185 (18): 3290–3306.e25. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 35988542. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Amadei, Gianluca; Handford, Charlotte E.; Qiu, Chengxiang; De Jonghe, Joachim; Greenfeld, Hannah; Tran, Martin; Martin, Beth K.; Chen, Dong-Yuan et al. (25 August 2022). "Embryo model completes gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis". Nature 610 (7930): 143–153. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 36007540. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Brackley, Paul (1 September 2022). "Synthetic embryo with brain and beating heart created by University of Cambridge scientists". https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/synthetic-embryo-with-brain-and-beating-heart-created-by-uni-9271220/. 
  12. ↑ Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Oldak, Bernardo; Shani, Tom; Ghanem, Nadir; Itzkovich, Chen; Slomovich, Sharon; Tarazi, Shadi; Bayerl, Jonathan et al. (May 2021). "Ex utero mouse embryogenesis from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis". Nature 593 (7857): 119–124. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03416-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33731940. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03416-3. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  13. ↑ Willyard, Cassandra (25 August 2022). "Mouse embryos grown without eggs or sperm: why, and what's next?". Nature 609 (7926): 230–231. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-02334-2. PMID 36008716. Bibcode: 2022Natur.609..230W. 
  14. ↑ "Synthetischer Embryo entwickelt Organe" (in de). 25 August 2022. https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/synthetischer-embryo-entwickelt-organe. 
  15. ↑ Holcombe, Madeline (5 September 2022). "A synthetic embryo, made without sperm or egg, could lead to infertility treatments". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/05/world/synthetic-embryos-stem-cells-scn/index.html. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Oldak, Bernardo; Wildschutz, Emilie; Bondarenko, Vladyslav; Comar, Mehmet-Yunus; Zhao, Cheng; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Tarazi, Shadi; Viukov, Sergey et al. (6 September 2023). "Complete human day 14 post-implantation embryo models from naive ES cells". Nature 622 (7983): 562–573. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06604-5. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 37673118. PMC 10584686. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06604-5. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  17. ↑ Bayerl, Jonathan; Ayyash, Muneef; Shani, Tom; Manor, Yair Shlomo; Gafni, Ohad; Massarwa, Rada; Kalma, Yael; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro et al. (2 September 2021). "Principles of signaling pathway modulation for enhancing human naive pluripotency induction". Cell Stem Cell 28 (9): 1549–1565.e12. doi:10.1016/j.stem.2021.04.001. ISSN 1934-5909. PMID 33915080. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Gallagher, James (6 September 2023). "Scientists grow whole model of human embryo, without sperm or egg". BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66715669. 
  19. ↑ Randall, Vernellia; Randall, Tshaka C. (22 March 2008). "Built in Obsolescence: The Coming End to the Abortion Debate". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1112367. ISSN 1556-5068. https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=vernellia_randall. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  20. ↑ Chessen, Matt (2 March 2013). "Artificial Wombs Could Outlaw Abortion". http://www.mattlesnake.com/2013/03/02/artificial-wombs-could-outlaw-abortion/. 
  21. ↑ Mathison, Eric; Davis, Jeremy (9 February 2017). "Is There a Right to the Death of the Foetus?". Bioethics 31 (4): 313–320. doi:10.1111/bioe.12331. ISSN 0269-9702. PMID 28182294. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313535795. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  22. ↑ Smajdor, Anna (Summer 2007). "The Moral Imperative for Ectogenesis". Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 16 (3): 336–45. doi:10.1017/s0963180107070405. PMID 17695628. http://annasmajdor.me.uk/ectogenesis_final.pdf. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 
  23. ↑ Chemaly, Soraya (23 February 2012). "What Do Artificial Wombs Mean for Women?". RH Reality Check. http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2012/02/23/what-do-artificial-wombs-mean-women/. 
  24. ↑ Rosen, Christine (2003). "Why Not Artificial Wombs?". The New Atlantis (Fall 2003): 67–76. ISSN 1555-5569. PMID 15586953. http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/TNA03-Rosen.pdf. Retrieved 7 May 2024. 

Further reading



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