Earth:Lake Minchin

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The green and two white expanses were formerly covered by Lake Minchin.

Lake Minchin is a name of an ancient lake in the Altiplano of South America. It existed where today the Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Coipasa and Lake Poopó lie. It was formerly considered the highest lake in the Altiplano but research indicated that the highest shoreline belongs to the later Lake Tauca instead.

The concept of a "Lake Minchin" was first coined in 1906 and the name is based on John B. Minchin. The dating of the lake varies but probably lasted until 22,000 – 21,000 BP. A glacier advance was in progress in the Andes during that time period.

The name "Minchin" has also been used in other contexts, and it has been proposed that the lake was actually a combination of several different paleolakes.

Definition

The name "Lake Minchin" has been used inconsistently to refer to either a lake existing 45,000 years ago, the highest lake in the Altiplano, or to sediment formations.

This confusion has led to calls to drop the usage of the name "Minchin".[1]

An alternative theory postulates that Lake Minchin was formed by several lakes, including Ouki and Inca Huasi.[2][3] Sometimes the term "Minchin" is also applied to the whole hydrological system Titicaca-Rio Desaguadero-Lake Poopo-Salar de Coipasa-Salar de Uyuni,[4] or to the highest ancient lake in the Altiplano (usually known as Lake Tauca).[5] There are also contradictions between lake level records in different parts of the system.[6]

Context

During its history a number of lakes appeared and then disappeared on the Altiplano. Lake Minchin was one of the first of these ancient lakes to be described. These lakes were identified by the lake terraces, sediments and bioherms.[7] Earlier lakes such as Lake Escara are documented from drill holes in the Salar de Uyuni.[8] Later lakes include Lake Tauca and Lake Coipasa.[9] As early as 1861 there are reports that lake deposits exist on the Altiplano.[10] John B. Minchin in 1882 reported the existence of encrustations around Lake Poopo and the salars south of Coipasa. He postulated that a lake with a surface area of 120,000 square kilometres (46,000 sq mi) left these encrustations and that the nitrate deposits in the Atacama and Tarapaca were likewise formed by water draining for this lake.

Some estimates of the size of this lake claimed that it reached from Lake Titicaca as far as 27° South.

The name "Lake Minchin" was applied in 1906 by Steinmann, who applied it to the Uyuni basin, while naming the lake covering the Poopo and Coipasa basins "Lake Reck".[11] The name was applied in honour of John B. Minchin.[4] Later it was found that Lake Titicaca was not part of Lake Minchin and the theory was put forward that meltwater from glaciers had formed the lake. A different lake (Lake Ballivian) was also defined which encompassed Lake Titicaca.[12] The relationship between various deposits in the southern Altiplano and these around Lake Titicaca was unclear at the beginning of the research history.[13]

Description of the lake

Deposits left by Lake Minchin

Lake Minchin was a saltwater lake,[14] which covered the basins of the Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Coipasa, Lake Poopo and Salar de Empexa,[15][7] including the towns of Llica, Oruro and the Desaguadero River valley.[16]

Area and altitude

The lake extended 200 kilometres (120 mi) east-west and 400 kilometres (250 mi) north-south.[17] A sill at Ulloma separated Lake Minchin from Lake Titicaca.[18] The water level reached 3,730 metres (12,240 ft) above sea level,[8] indicating a depth of 100–140 metres (330–460 ft) above the Uyuni basin.[19][20] In the Poopo basin, water levels may have reached 45 metres (148 ft).[21] At Cerro Lipillipi terraces between 3,680–3,735 metres (12,073–12,254 ft) are dated to between 31,750 and 25,700 before present (BP).[22] Another estimate is 3,760–3,720 metres (12,340–12,200 ft).[23][24] Earlier estimates of the altitude are 3,660–3,705 metres (12,008–12,156 ft), resulting in depths of 40–90 metres (130–300 ft). Such water depths exceed these of preceding lakes, and together with even higher water levels of the subsequent Lake Tauca they are part of a trend of increasing water levels in the southern Altiplano which contrasts with progressively decreasing lake levels in the northern Altiplano.[19] Earlier research suggested an opposite trend of lowering water levels in both basins.[25] The surface area of Lake Minchin may have been 40,000–60,000 square kilometres (15,000–23,000 sq mi),[26] or 63,000 square kilometres (24,000 sq mi).[27] A lake terrace at 3,765 metres (12,352 ft) is also attributed to Lake Minchin.[28] The highest lake terraces at 3,772–3,784 metres (12,375–12,415 ft) and 3,760 metres (12,340 ft) were later found to belong to Lake Tauca, making it the deeper of the two lakes.[22][24] If Minchin reached a water level of 3,830 metres (12,570 ft) it may have spilled into the Pilcomayo River, draining from there via the Rio de la Plata into the Atlantic Ocean.[29] It is also possible that the lake temporarily drained into the Pacific Ocean through its southwesternmost sector at Salar de Ascotán; such an outlet would have existed for only a brief time, however, before it was obstructed by volcanism.[30] San Agustin, San Cristobal and Colcha formed islands in the lake, which was separated into a Coipasa half and an Uyuni half by a peninsula[17] of the Serranía Intersalar;[31] straits at Llica and Salinas de Garci Mendoza connected the two halves.[32] Bays developed close to Isluga, Empexa and Ollagüe.[33]

Flora and fauna

Sediments left by the lake indicate the presence of gastropods, ostracods and stromatolites. At Estancia Vinto, several different species have been found, including the ostracods Amphicypris, Candonopsis, Darwinula, Limnocythere, Limnocythere bradburyi, Limnocythere titicaca and the molluscs Anysancylus crequii, Ecpomastrum mirum, Littoridina poopoensis, Taphius montanus. Some species variation may indicate that water levels at the site fluctuated;[28] for example the deepwater diatoms Cyclotella meneghiniana and Cyclotella stelligera but also benthic species.[34] Around the lake, Polylepis expanded and quantities of water supported Isoetes and Myriophyllum.[35] In comparison to Lake Tauca, the climate around Lake Minchin was more favourable to the development of vegetation, probably thanks to higher temperatures and a lower water level.[36] On the other hand, the lake may have acted as a barrier and prevented the movement of animals and plants between the south and north of the lake.[37] The repeated expansion and shrinkage of the Altiplano lakes like Minchin influenced the evolution of Orestias fish species.[38]

Salt content has been estimated at 30–130 grams per litre (0.0011–0.0047 lb/cu in).[27] It was dominated by sodium chloride, sodium-chloride-carbonate and sodium-chloride-sulfate salts, as determined from studies on diatoms;[39] close to the inlet of the Desaguadero River the waters were less salty.[31] Sedimentation rates in the Uyuni basin of Lake Minchin did not exceed 0.4 millimetres per year (0.016 in/year).[40] When the lake dried up, it left clay and sand deposits in the Altiplano.[41] Also, the volume of about 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) maximum of water caused the ground beneath the lake to sink by about 30 metres (98 ft).[42] Since its desiccation, shorelines have been tilted over the last 17,000 years.[43]

Chronology

The early research in 1978 distinguished a Lake Minchin between 32,000–30,000 years ago[44] and a later Lake Tauca. The exact history of Lake Minchin was little understood at that time,[7] with uranium-thorium dating yielding ages of 44,000–34,000 and 72,000–68,000 years BP.[45] These two phases were also called "Upper Minchin" and "Lower Minchin".[46] However, it was later found that radiocarbon dates on these samples indicated much lower ages,[24] from 28,000 years ago to dates too old for radiocarbon dating.[47] Between 31,000 and 26,000 the lake would have reached its highest[48] and around 27,500 BP its second highest level.[49] The lake probably did dried up after about 22,000 BP.[24] Based on sedimentation rates in the Uyuni basin, it is likely that Lake Minchin was not continuous in existence during this period.[8] Other dates extend the time period of Lake Minchin until 21,000 years BP,[18] or set it earlier at 38,000 years BP,[9] or define it as a humid period between 46,000-36,000 years ago or older.[50] Yet another proposal postulates that the earliest deep lake occurred 120,000–98,000 years ago.[51] The S4 layer in the brines of Salar de Uyuni has been attributed to the Minchin stage.[52] Finally, it has been suggested that Lake Minchin was actually the same wet phase as the Inca Huasi wet phase.[53]

Origin

The formation of Lake Minchin was at first explained with glacial meltwater formed during an interglacial.[54] This idea was disputed because the growth of lakes happens at the same time as the growth of glaciers rather than afterwards.[55] An alternative explanation postulates an increase of precipitation over the Altiplano.[56] Higher insolation may have played a role in the expansion of Lake Minchin.[29] Water from Lake Titicaca may have contributed to the formation of Lake Minchin.[57] An old theory that the Altiplano lakes were formerly part of the ocean is considered to be untenable in light of the lack of marine sediments and the fact that the fish fauna is made up of freshwater species.[58]

Related events

A regional glacial maximum has been associated with the existence of Lake Minchin.[59][60] The Choqueyapu II glacier advance was probably under way during the Lake Minchin phase and eventually led to the local Last Glacial Maximum,[61] and the Canabaya glacier advance in the Cordillera Real may also be linked to the Minchin phase,[62] as is the formation of glaciers on mountains of the Puna[53] and in northern Chile.[50]

Summer insolation was increased during the Lake Minchin period.[9] During the Lake Minchin period, precipitation on the Altiplano was higher than today.[21] This precipitation increase started 54,800 years ago, while the time period between Lake Minchin and Lake Tauca featured a dry climate.[63] ENSO variations also occurred during the Minchin period.[64]

Minchin is also the name of a water-level highstand of Lake Titicaca at about 3,825 metres (12,549 ft) altitude.[7] The highstand phase there ended about 20,000 BP.[65] During the time of Lake Minchin, water levels in Lake Titicaca rose by about 10–15 metres (33–49 ft).[28][23] Terraces of the southern and eastern Lake Titicaca shores have been linked to the Minchin highstand.[66]

Water level rises are also recorded from lakes and salt pans in Atacama Altiplano,[67] subtropical Andes[68] and the southern Lipez region during the time of Lake Minchin and in lesser measure during the time of Lake Tauca, where they may have formed from increased precipitation.[49] The Salar de Atacama likewise was wetter between 53,400–15,300 years ago[9] and hillslope activity increased in the Salar Grande basin of the Atacama Desert.[69] Also associated with the Lake Minchin period are an increased landslide activity in northwest Argentina,[70] the formation of lakes behind such landslides,[64] a saline phase in the Laguna de los Pozuelos lake,[71] an increase in runoff[72] and of sediment deposition along the Pativilca valley[73] and along the Rio Pisco in Peru as well as probable subsequent erosion,[74] and increased moisture availability in the Serra dos Carajas area of Brazil.[75][76] Finally, river terraces formed at that time in the Rio Majes, Rio Ramis valleys and in the Lomas de Lachay.[77]

References

  1. ↑ Placzek, Quade & Patchett 2006, p. 517.
  2. ↑ Placzek, Quade & Patchett 2006, p. 528.
  3. ↑ McPhillips, Devin; Bierman, Paul R.; Crocker, Thomas; Rood, Dylan H. (December 2013). "Landscape response to Pleistocene-Holocene precipitation change in the Western Cordillera, Peru: Be concentrations in modern sediments and terrace fills". Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 118 (4): 2490. doi:10.1002/2013JF002837. Bibcode: 2013JGRF..118.2488M. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Sánchez-Saldías & Fariña 2014, p. 250.
  5. ↑ Bills, Bruce G.; Borsa, Adrian A.; Comstock, Robert L. (March 2007). "MISR-based passive optical bathymetry from orbit with few-cm level of accuracy on the Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia". Remote Sensing of Environment 107 (1–2): 243. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2006.11.006. Bibcode: 2007RSEnv.107..240B. https://zenodo.org/record/1259333. 
  6. ↑ Chepstow-Lusty et al. 2005, p. 91.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Fornari, Risacher & Féraud 2001, p. 270.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Fornari, Risacher & Féraud 2001, p. 279.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Bobst et al. 2001, p. 37.
  10. ↑ Moon 1939, p. 30.
  11. ↑ Moon 1939, p. 31.
  12. ↑ Moon 1939, p. 32.
  13. ↑ Bowman 1914, p. 178.
  14. ↑ Servant-Vildary & Mello_e_Sousa 1993, p. 70.
  15. ↑ Ericksen, Vine & Raul Ballón 1978, p. 355.
  16. ↑ Brüggen, J. (April 1929). "Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden" (in de). Geologische Rundschau 20 (1): 3–4. doi:10.1007/bf01805072. ISSN 0016-7835. Bibcode: 1929GeoRu..20....1B. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Arellano 1984, p. 87.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Wirrmann & Mourguiart 1995, p. 348.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Fornari, Risacher & Féraud 2001, p. 280.
  20. ↑ Donselaar, M.E.; Cuevas Gozalo, M.C.; Moyano, S. (January 2013). "Avulsion processes at the terminus of low-gradient semi-arid fluvial systems: Lessons from the Río Colorado, Altiplano endorheic basin, Bolivia". Sedimentary Geology 283: 2. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.10.007. Bibcode: 2013SedG..283....1D. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 ZOLÁ, RAMIRO PILLCO; BENGTSSON, LARS (February 2006). "Long-term and extreme water level variations of the shallow Lake Poopó, Bolivia". Hydrological Sciences Journal 51 (1): 99. doi:10.1623/hysj.51.1.98. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Blodgett, Isacks & Lenters 1997, p. 2.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Schäbitz & Liebricht 1999, p. 116.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Clapperton et al. 1997, p. 57.
  25. ↑ Wirrmann & Mourguiart 1995, p. 346.
  26. ↑ Thompson, L. G. (4 December 1998). "A 25,000-Year Tropical Climate History from Bolivian Ice Cores". Science 282 (5395): 1858–64. doi:10.1126/science.282.5395.1858. PMID 9836630. Bibcode: 1998Sci...282.1858T. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Wirrmann, Denis; Mourguiart, Philippe; Almeida, Oliveira (1988). "Holocene sedimentology and ostracods distribution in Lake Titicaca : paleohydrological interpretations". Quaternary of South America and Antarctic Peninsula 6: 89–127. http://www.documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:31818. Retrieved 11 October 2016. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Wirrmann & Mourguiart 1995, p. 349.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Sánchez-Saldías & Fariña 2014, p. 258.
  30. ↑ Ahlfeld 1972, p. 162.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Ahlfeld 1972, p. 160.
  32. ↑ Kessler, Albrecht (1966). "Junge Laufänder ungen des Desaguadero und die Entstehung des Uru-Uru-Sees (bolivianischer Altiplano): Ein Beitrag zur klimabedingten Morphogenese eines Endseebeckens (Recent Changes in the Course of the Desaguadero and the Origin of Lake Uru-Uru (Bolivian Altiplano))" (in de). Erdkunde 20 (3): 194–204. 
  33. ↑ Ahlfeld 1972, p. 158.
  34. ↑ Fritz, Sherilyn C; Baker, Paul A; Lowenstein, Tim K; Seltzer, Geoffrey O; Rigsby, Catherine A; Dwyer, Gary S; Tapia, Pedro M; Arnold, Kimberly K et al. (January 2004). "Hydrologic variation during the last 170,000 years in the southern hemisphere tropics of South America". Quaternary Research 61 (1): 102. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2003.08.007. Bibcode: 2004QuRes..61...95F. 
  35. ↑ Chepstow-Lusty et al. 2005, p. 95.
  36. ↑ Chepstow-Lusty et al. 2005, p. 97.
  37. ↑ Spotorno, Angel E.; Veloso, Alberto (1990-01-01). Schull, William J.. ed (in en). The Aymara. Studies in Human Biology. Springer Netherlands. p. 27. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2141-2_2. ISBN 9789401074636. 
  38. ↑ Löffler, Heinz (1984). "The Importance of Mountains for Animal Distribution, Species Speciation, and Faunistic Evolution (With Special Attention to Inland Waters)". Mountain Research and Development 4 (4): 299–304. doi:10.2307/3673232. 
  39. ↑ Servant-Vildary & Mello_e_Sousa 1993, p. 71.
  40. ↑ Tapia, Joseline; Audry, Stéphane; van Beek, Pieter (1 March 2020). "Natural and anthropogenic controls on particulate metal(loid) deposition in Bolivian highland sediments, Lake Uru Uru (Bolivia)" (in en). The Holocene 30 (3): 437. doi:10.1177/0959683619887425. ISSN 0959-6836. Bibcode: 2020Holoc..30..428T. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0959683619887425. 
  41. ↑ Lavenu, Alain (1995). "Geodinamica plio-quaternaria en los Andes Centrales: El Altiplano Norte de Bolivia" (in es). Revista Tecnica de YPFB. p. 83. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32973601. 
  42. ↑ Bills, Bruce G.; Adams, Kenneth D.; Wesnousky, Steven G. (8 June 2007). "Viscosity structure of the crust and upper mantle in western Nevada from isostatic rebound patterns of the late Pleistocene Lake Lahontan high shoreline". Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (B6): 2. doi:10.1029/2005JB003941. Bibcode: 2007JGRB..112.6405B. 
  43. ↑ Vella, Marc-Antoine; Loget, Nicolas (1 November 2021). "Geomorphological map of the Tiwanaku River watershed in Bolivia: Implications for past and present human occupation" (in en). CATENA 206: 3. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2021.105508. ISSN 0341-8162. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0341816221003660. 
  44. ↑ Salenbien, Wout; Baker, Paul A.; Fritz, Sherilyn C.; Nunnery, J. Andrew (2018). "Lake-level variability in Salar de Coipasa, Bolivia during the past ∼40,000 yr" (in en). Quaternary Research 91 (2): 882. doi:10.1017/qua.2018.108. ISSN 0033-5894. 
  45. ↑ Fornari, Risacher & Féraud 2001, p. 271.
  46. ↑ ROUCHY, JEAN MARIE; SERVANT, MICHEL; FOURNIER, MARC; CAUSSE, CHRISTIANE (December 1996). "Extensive carbonate algal bioherms in upper Pleistocene saline lakes of the central Altiplano of Bolivia". Sedimentology 43 (6): 975. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1996.tb01514.x. Bibcode: 1996Sedim..43..973R. 
  47. ↑ Placzek, Quade & Patchett 2006, p. 516.
  48. ↑ Blodgett, Isacks & Lenters 1997, p. 20.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Clapperton et al. 1997, p. 52.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Heine, Klaus (2019) (in de). Das Quartär in den Tropen. Springer Spektrum, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 269–270. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-57384-6. ISBN 978-3-662-57384-6. 
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  52. ↑ Martínez, José M.; Escudero, Cristina; Rodríguez, Nuria; Rubin, Sergio; Amils, Ricardo (2021). "Subsurface and surface halophile communities of the chaotropic Salar de Uyuni" (in en). Environmental Microbiology 23 (7): 3996. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.15411. ISSN 1462-2920. PMID 33511754. https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1462-2920.15411. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Luna, Lisa V.; Bookhagen, Bodo; Niedermann, Samuel; Rugel, Georg; Scharf, Andreas; Merchel, Silke (October 2018). "Glacial chronology and production rate cross-calibration of five cosmogenic nuclide and mineral systems from the southern Central Andean Plateau" (in en). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 500: 249. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.034. ISSN 0012-821X. Bibcode: 2018E&PSL.500..242L. http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:3468888. 
  54. ↑ Vita-Finzi, C. (September 1959). "A Pluvial Age in the Puna de Atacama". The Geographical Journal 125 (3/4): 401–403. doi:10.2307/1791124. 
  55. ↑ Fernández, Jorge; Markgraf, Vera; Panarello, Héctor O.; Albero, Miguel; Angiolini, Fernando E.; Valencio, Susana; Arriaga, Mirta (July 1991). "Late pleistocene/early holocene environments and climates, fauna, and human occupation in the argentine altiplano". Geoarchaeology 6 (3): 268–269. doi:10.1002/gea.3340060303. 
  56. ↑ Wirrmann, Denis; De Oliveira Almeida, Luiz Fernando (January 1987). "Low Holocene level (7700 to 3650 years ago) of lake Titicaca (Bolivia)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 59: 322. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(87)90088-5. Bibcode: 1987PPP....59..315W. 
  57. ↑ Fritz, S.C.; Baker, P.A.; Tapia, P.; Spanbauer, T.; Westover, K. (February 2012). "Evolution of the Lake Titicaca basin and its diatom flora over the last ~370,000years". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 317–318: 101. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.12.013. Bibcode: 2012PPP...317...93F. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1396&context=geosciencefacpub. 
  58. ↑ Gerth, H. (August 1915). "Geologische und morphologische Beobachtungen in den Kordilleren Südperús" (in de). Geologische Rundschau 6 (3): 131. doi:10.1007/BF01797474. Bibcode: 1915GeoRu...6..129G. https://zenodo.org/record/1567830. 
  59. ↑ Schäbitz & Liebricht 1999, p. 123.
  60. ↑ Clapperton, C.M. (1991). "Glacier fluctuations of the last glacial-interglacial cycle in the Andes of South America". Bamberger Geograpische Schriften 11: 196. 
  61. ↑ Clapperton et al. 1997, p. 58.
  62. ↑ Seltzer, Geoffry O. (January 1990). "Recent glacial history and paleoclimate of the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes". Quaternary Science Reviews 9 (2–3): 150. doi:10.1016/0277-3791(90)90015-3. Bibcode: 1990QSRv....9..137S. 
  63. ↑ Steffen, Schlunegger & Preusser 2009, p. 492.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Bookhagen, Bodo; Haselton, Kirk; Trauth, Martin H (May 2001). "Hydrological modelling of a Pleistocene landslide-dammed lake in the Santa Maria Basin, NW Argentina". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 169 (1–2): 126. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00221-8. Bibcode: 2001PPP...169..113B. 
  65. ↑ Servant-Vildary & Mello_e_Sousa 1993, pp. 69–70.
  66. ↑ Quino Lima, Israel; Ramos Ramos, Oswaldo; Ormachea Muñoz, Mauricio; Quintanilla Aguirre, Jorge; Duwig, Celine; Maity, Jyoti Prakash; Sracek, Ondra; Bhattacharya, Prosun (1 June 2020). "Spatial dependency of arsenic, antimony, boron and other trace elements in the shallow groundwater systems of the Lower Katari Basin, Bolivian Altiplano" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 719: 4. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137505. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32120110. Bibcode: 2020ScTEn.719m7505Q. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720310160. 
  67. ↑ Grosjean, Martin; Veit, Heinz (2005), Huber, Uli M.; Bugmann, Harald K. M.; Reasoner, Mel A., eds., "Water Resources in the Arid Mountains of the Atacama Desert (Northern Chile): Past Climate Changes and Modern Conflicts" (in en), Global Change and Mountain Regions: An Overview of Current Knowledge, Advances in Global Change Research (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands): p. 97, doi:10.1007/1-4020-3508-x_10, ISBN 978-1-4020-3508-1, https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3508-X_10, retrieved 2020-12-09 
  68. ↑ Guerra, Lucía; Martini, Mateo A.; Vogel, Hendrik; Piovano, Eduardo L.; Hajdas, Irka; Astini, Ricardo; De Haller, Antoine; Moscariello, Andrea et al. (October 2022). "Microstratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental implications of a Late Quaternary high‐altitude lacustrine record in the subtropical Andes" (in en). Sedimentology 69 (6): 2607. doi:10.1111/sed.13004. ISSN 0037-0746. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/sed.13004. 
  69. ↑ Medialdea, Alicia; May, Simon Matthias; Brill, Dominik; King, Georgina; Ritter, Benedikt; Wennrich, Volker; Bartz, Melanie; Zander, Anja et al. (1 January 2020). "Identification of humid periods in the Atacama Desert through hillslope activity established by infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating" (in en). Global and Planetary Change 185: 13. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.103086. ISSN 0921-8181. Bibcode: 2020GPC...18503086M. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818119305715. 
  70. ↑ Trauth, Martin H.; Bookhagen, Bodo; Marwan, Norbert; Strecker, Manfred R. (May 2003). "Multiple landslide clusters record Quaternary climate changes in the northwestern Argentine Andes". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194 (1–3): 118. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00273-6. Bibcode: 2003PPP...194..109T. 
  71. ↑ McGLUE, MICHAEL M.; PALACIOS-FEST, MANUEL R.; CUSMINSKY, GABRIELA C.; CAMACHO, MARIA; IVORY, SARAH J.; KOWLER, ANDREW L.; CHAKRABORTY, SUVANKAR (1 June 2017). "Ostracode Biofacies and Shell Chemistry Reveal Quaternary Aquatic Transitions in the Pozuelos Basin (Argentina)" (in en). PALAIOS 32 (6): 423. doi:10.2110/palo.2016.089. ISSN 0883-1351. Bibcode: 2017Palai..32..413M. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/palaios/article/32/6/413/506738. 
  72. ↑ Litty, Camille; Duller, Robert; Schlunegger, Fritz (15 June 2016). "Paleohydraulic reconstruction of a 40 ka-old terrace sequence implies that water discharge was larger than today" (in en). Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 41 (7): 884–898. doi:10.1002/esp.3872. ISSN 1096-9837. Bibcode: 2016ESPL...41..884L. 
  73. ↑ Litty, Camille; Schlunegger, Fritz; Akçar, Naki; Delunel, Romain; Christl, Marcus; Vockenhuber, Christof (August 2018). "Chronology of alluvial terrace sediment accumulation and incision in the Pativilca Valley, western Peruvian Andes" (in en). Geomorphology 315: 55. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.05.005. ISSN 0169-555X. Bibcode: 2018Geomo.315...45L. https://boris.unibe.ch/116603/7/LItty_et_al_2018.pdf. 
  74. ↑ Steffen, Schlunegger & Preusser 2009, p. 493.
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  76. ↑ Sifeddine, Abdelfettah; Bertaux, Jacques; Mourguiart, Philippe; Martin, Louis; Disnar, Jean-Robert; Laggoun-Defarge, Fatima; Argollo, Jaime (1 May 1998). "Etude de la sedimentation lacustre d'un site de foret d'altitude des Andes centrales (Bolivie); implications paleoclimatiques" (in en). Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 169 (3): 400. ISSN 0037-9409. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sgf/bsgf/article-abstract/169/3/395/88104/Etude-de-la-sedimentation-lacustre-d-un-site-de?redirectedFrom=fulltext. 
  77. ↑ Kalicki, Tomasz; Kalicki, Piotr (15 May 2020). "Fluvial activity in the Lomas de Lachay during the upper Pleistocene and Holocene" (in en). Geomorphology 357: 8. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107087. ISSN 0169-555X. Bibcode: 2020Geomo.35707087K. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X20300593. 

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External links

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