Social:Sinicization

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Short description: Assimilation into Han Chinese culture
Sinicization
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Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix sino-, 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, culture, and ethnic identity of the Han Chinese—the largest ethnic group of China.

Areas of influence include diet, writing, industry, education, language/lexicon, law, architectural style, politics, philosophy, religion, science and technology, value systems, and lifestyle.

The term sinicization is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies, or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process is reflected in the histories of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system, which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries.

Assimilation

The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity (Zhonghua minzu) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being the country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China.[citation needed] Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity, language diversity, and cultural diversity. Historian James A. Millward claimed the PRC has used the concept of Sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism.[1]

In China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of the region.[2] There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer, Portuguese, English, etc.

Sinicizations

Historical

Baiyue

Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of Southern China, collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue (Chinese: 百越; literally: 'Hundreds of Yue Peoples'), inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin.

As early as the 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the Yangtze River Delta started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the Wu State. These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the Yue State centuries later, are collectively termed as Yuyue peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese mostly as war refugees, led to the sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in Southern China, be they in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin.[3] The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China.

Mongolic and Turkic peoples

Tuoba Wei of Northern China was a Sinicized Empire of Mongolic-Xianbei origin.

Historical Shatuo Turks founded 3 Sinicized dynasties in Northern China. Descendants of Buddhist Uyghurs (see also Yugurs, Kingdom of Qocho and Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom) who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan have assimilated into the Hui population and adopted Chinese culture practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language.

Han, Jin, and Sixteen Kingdoms period

Main page: History:Sixteen Kingdoms

From the late Han Dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (266–420), large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as the Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords.[4]

During Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture.[5] The migration of Northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire.

Northern and Southern dynasties

The Northern and Southern dynasties was a period in the history of China that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. The period saw large-scale migration of Han Chinese to the lands south of the Yangtze. The period came to an end with the unification of all of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty. During this period, the process of Sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism (introduced into China in the first century) and Daoism in both northern and southern China.[6]

Tang dynasty

During the eighth and ninth centuries in the Tang dynasty, Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou (formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929.[7] Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women.[8]

Yuan dynasty

The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty appointed a Muslim from Bukhara, Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar, as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai-led Dali Kingdom. Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize the Yunnan province;[9] the promotion of Islam, Confucianism, and Buddhism would be part of his 'civilizing mission' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian."[10][11]

He founded a "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern Kunming is today, and ordered that a Buddhist temple, two mosques, and a Confucian temple be built in the city.[12][13] The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.[14] By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from the definition of fellow Chinese he governed.[15] As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce Confucian education, rituals, and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, funeral rituals, and marriage customs.[10][16] He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign.[17][18][19]

Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars.[20][21] The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well.[21][22] The governor was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies.[23]

Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work.[24] Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan Dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi."[25] It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City (Ta-li), which had many Hui people.[26]

Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death.[27][28]

Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving the Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997);[29] and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.)[30] and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989).[31]

Ming dynasty

During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married the native women.

Qing dynasty

The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices.

Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names, and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all.[32] The meaning of the names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names.[33] The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names.[34]

Historical records report that as early as 1776, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a high Manchu official, Guo'ermin, not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang).[35] By the 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu.[36]

Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names, although its usage was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names.[37]

The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang, which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation.[38]

Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style.[39][40]

Usage of surnames was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese.[41]

Nguyễn dynasty (Vietnam)

The Vietnamese Nguyễn Emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Khmers, Chams and Montagnards, claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam.[42] Directing his policies at the Khmers and hill tribes,[43] Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs."[44] Moreover, he would use the term Han (漢人) to refer to the Vietnamese people,[42] and the name Trung Quốc (中國, the same Chinese characters as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam.[45] Likewise, the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as Han people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams.[46]

Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today.[47][48][49][50]

Contemporary

Ma Clique

Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged the integration of Muslims into Chinese society.[51] Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han.[52]

Hong Kong and Macau

Xinjiang

The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed the southern region of Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, importing Han cooks and baths,[53] changing the Uyghur language-only street names and signs to Chinese, as well as switching carpet patterns in state-owned carpet factories from Uyghur to Han.[54]

Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang re-education camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).[55] Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in these camps.[56][57][58][59] The camps were established under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology.[60] Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused the Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy a cultural genocide, or ethnocide, of Uyghurs.[61][62][63][64]

Taiwan

After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan from the Empire of Japan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule. Examples of this policy included the renaming of Japanese-named streets with mainland geographical names, the use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional Chinese languages (such as the fāngyán[further explanation needed] of Hakka and Hokkien), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China.[65][66] Other reasons for the policy were to combat the Japanese influences on the culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, county or province than to China as a nation.[67]

The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization. This is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements.

Tibet

Main page: Social:Sinicization of Tibet

The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda, police presence, cultural assimilation, religious persecution, immigration, population transfer, land development, land transfer, and political reform.[68][69][70][71] According to the U.S. branch of the Offices of Tibet, it has been underway since the Chinese regained control of Tibet in 1951.[72] Sources quoted by Radio Free Asia have stated that in present-day Tibet, traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater" where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries."[73]

Religion

In April 2016, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping declared that in order to "actively guide the adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China's religions' persistence in the direction of sinicization."[74][75] He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying "We will fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist."[74][76]

Protestantism

The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described the Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922-27 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity.[77]

The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs."[78][79]

In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed 'China', not 'the West'" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding the Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver."[77]

In December 2023, Wang Huning stated that Christian groups must "adhere to the direction of the sinicisation of Christianity."[80]

Catholicism

In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the United Front Work Department's Catholic Patriotic Association to uphold the principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization.[81]

In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher, Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See's Secretariat of State, said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely "sinicization" and "inculturation." I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from the bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world."[82][83]

In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Catholic Patriotic Association issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country".[84][85] This document calls for Catholics to accept Communist party leadership, love the motherland and obey the state, as well as to embrace the state's directive to implement Chinese cultural integration within Catholicism. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately.[86][87]

Cardinal Parolin, the Vatican Secretary of State, in a 2019 interview with the CCP-owned Global Times newspaper, claimed that sinicization was a form of 'inculturation', which is a Catholic missionary term that refers to adopting local culture to proclaim the gospel. He cited Matteo Ricci as an example and pointed out that the Chinese leadership had promised not to undermine the doctrine and nature of each religion. He stated in the interview: "These two terms, "inculturation" and "sinicization," refer to each other without confusion and without opposition: in some ways, they can be complementary and can open avenues for dialogue on the religious and cultural level."[88][89][90][91]

Islam

Mosque with dome removed due to Sinicization policy

In 2015, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "Sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions".[92]

Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China, said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard the spiritual homeland of the Chinese people."[93] He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture.[74]

In 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur Muslim families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices.[94][95] These government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and have been described in Chinese state media as being a key part of enhancing "ethnic unity".[94]

(As of 2019), it was estimated that Chinese authorities may have detained one and a half million people in secretive re-education camps. The vast majority of those forcibly interned are Muslim Uyghurs but Kazakhs and other minority groups have also been included.[96]

In September 2020, sinicization policies targeted Muslim Utsuls in the Hainan province. Restrictions included limiting the size of mosques, requiring a Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as "halal"), and banning the hijab in schools and government offices.[97][98]

In June 2023, CNN reported that Chinese authorities had forcibly rebuilt a number of mosques in order to eliminate traditional Islamic architecture (e.g. minarets, domes) and replace them with Chinese architecture.[99] In July 2023, the United Front Work Department's Central Institute of Socialism developed a plan to "meld Islam with Confucianism" using the Han Kitab texts as a guide.[100]

See also


References

  1. ↑ Millward, James A. (2023-07-25). "Sinicisation, the Tribute System and Dynasties". https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/sinicisation-tribute-system-and-dynasties. 
  2. ↑ "China" (in en). https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN. 
  3. ↑ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 9780871698650. https://books.google.com/books?id=XiELAAAAIAAJ&q=in+the+southward+spread+of+Han+Chinese+led+to+the+sinicization+of+all+AN-speakers&pg=PA137. Retrieved 2020-10-14. 
  4. ↑ Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 180. ISBN 0521497817. https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern. 
  5. ↑ David Graff (2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 1134553536. 
  6. ↑ Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 0521497817. https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern. 
  7. ↑ (in English) Scottish Geographical Society (1929). Scottish geographical magazine, Volumes 45–46. Royal Scottish Geographical Society.. p. 70. https://books.google.com/books?id=eG8cAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  8. ↑ (in English) Margaret Portia Mickey (1947). The Cowrie Shell Miao of Kweichow, Volume 32, Issue 1. The Museum. p. 6. https://books.google.com/books?id=vqcSAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  9. ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=na+family+hui&pg=PA22. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lane, George (June 29, 2011). "Sayyed ajall". http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sayyed-ajall. 
  11. ↑ Atwood, Christopher P. 2004. "Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din." Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Archived from the original on 2014-08-13.
  12. ↑ Gaubatz, Piper Rae (1996). Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0804723990. https://books.google.com/books?id=drGGEsi1fFEC&q=sichuan+ajall+yuan&pg=PA78. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  13. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=administrators+Shams+al-din+umar++al+bukhari. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan ... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools" 
  14. ↑ Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 92. ISBN 978-9812308375. https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA92. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  15. ↑ Carter, James (16 December 2020). "How Kublai Khan's Yuan complicates the notion of 'China'". https://supchina.com/2020/12/16/how-kublai-khans-yuan-complicates-the-notion-of-china/. 
  16. ↑ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 477. ISBN 3447033398. https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA477. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  17. ↑ Liu, Xinru (2001). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 019979880X. https://books.google.com/books?id=xXhhkvOULHsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA116. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  18. ↑ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 476. ISBN 3447033398. https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA476. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  19. ↑ "Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn". http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm. 
  20. ↑ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0231142540. https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=pioneered+salary+school+kunming. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Yang, Bin (2008). "Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese". Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231142540. http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/pdf/yang-chapter5.pdf. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [page needed]
  22. ↑ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0231142540. https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=For+instance%2C+Sayyid%27Ajall+Shams+Al-Din+taught+indigenous+peoples+to+perform+the+Confucian+rituals+of+kneeling+%28kowtow%29%2C+matchmaking+for+marriage%2C+marriage+ceremonies%2C+funerals%2C+and+ancestral+worship.+He+also+presented+native+chieftains+with+clothes%2C+hats%2C+socks%2C+and+shoes+to+replace+their+%22barbarian%22+dress.. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  23. ↑ Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara ... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan ... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps' ..." [page needed]
  24. ↑ M. Th Houtsma (1993). First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 847. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PA847. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi: he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu." 
  25. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 174. https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=al+din+yachi+exclusively+prominent. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims." 
  26. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 387. https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=when+early+al+din+yachi+exclusively+ta-li+centre+though. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province." 
  27. ↑ ( )Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence." [page needed]
  28. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=son+Nasir. Retrieved December 20, 2011. "On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the" 
  29. ↑ ""CESWW" - Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies - History". http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_dis_History.html. 
  30. ↑ "Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan". https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1998abst/china/c8.htm. 
  31. ↑ Gladney, Dru C. (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Harvard East Asian Monographs 149. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 424. ISBN 0674594975. https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=armijo&pg=PA366. Retrieved 24 April 2014. 
  32. ↑ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger." 
  33. ↑ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga" 
  34. ↑ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA243. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46" 
  35. ↑ Yu Hsiao-jung, Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language
  36. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. ISBN:0-295-98040-0. Partially available on Google Books
  37. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eighth or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively." 
  38. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")" 
  39. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their" 
  40. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780295804125. https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA57. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han." 
  41. ↑ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 241. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241. Retrieved March 2, 2012. "Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a" 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Norman G. Owen (2005). The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2890-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=py5Xh0-pw18C&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA115. Retrieved 2020-10-14. 
  43. ↑ Randall Peerenboom; Carole J. Petersen; Albert H.Y. Chen (27 September 2006). Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA. Routledge. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-134-23881-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=2j6GNiMMc1oC&q=kinh+people+of+capital&pg=PA474. Retrieved 14 October 2020. 
  44. ↑ A. Dirk Moses (1 January 2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. pp. 209–. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA209. Retrieved 14 October 2020. 
  45. ↑ "H-Net Discussion Networks - FW: H-ASIA: Vietnam as "Zhongguo" (2 REPLIES)". http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-asia&month=9906&week=e&msg=28mq4qDZEWt3sD%2B6t6h%2Flw&user=&pw=. 
  46. ↑ "Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries". http://kyotoreview.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/issue/issue4/article_353.html. 
  47. ↑ "Angelasancartier.net". http://angelasancartier.net/ao-dai-vietnams-national-dress. 
  48. ↑ "#18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai". 2010-03-14. http://beyondvictoriana.com/2010/03/14/beyond-victoriana-18-transcultural-tradition-of-the-vietnamese-ao-dai/. 
  49. ↑ "Ao Dai". http://fashion-history.lovetoknow.com/clothing-types-styles/ao-dai. 
  50. ↑ "The Ao Dai and I: A Personal Essay on Cultural Identity and Steampunk". 2010-10-20. http://www.tor.com/2010/10/20/ao-dai-and-i-steampunk-essay/. 
  51. ↑ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&q=ma+fu-hsiang&pg=PA368. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  52. ↑ Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". Modern China (Sage Publications, Inc.) 10 (3): 296. doi:10.1177/009770048401000302. 
  53. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=ma+hushan&pg=PA134. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  54. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=ma+hushan&pg=PA134. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  55. ↑ "Chinese official says 'sinicization' of religion in Xinjiang must go on". South China Morning Post, Reuters. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2168460/chinese-official-says-sinicization-religion-xinjiang-must-go. 
  56. ↑ Lipes, Joshua (November 24, 2019). "Expert Says 1.8 Million Uyghurs, Muslim Minorities Held in Xinjiang's Internment Camps". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/detainees-11232019223242.html. 
  57. ↑ "U.N. says it has credible reports China holds million Uighurs in secret camps". Reuters. 10 August 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-rights-un/u-n-says-it-has-credible-reports-china-holds-million-uighurs-in-secret-camps-idUSKBN1KV1SU. 
  58. ↑ "Data leak details China's 'brainwashing system'" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2019-11-24. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50511063. 
  59. ↑ "Former inmates of China's Muslim 're-education' camps tell of brainwashing, torture". www.washingtonpost.com. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/former-inmates-of-chinas-muslim-re-education-camps-tell-of-brainwashing-torture/2018/05/16/32b330e8-5850-11e8-8b92-45fdd7aaef3c_story.html. 
  60. ↑ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2019-11-16). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html. 
  61. ↑ ""'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" - The Independent, 5 July 2019". 5 July 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html. 
  62. ↑ "'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs". 17 December 2019. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89. 
  63. ↑ Zand, Bernhard (28 November 2019). "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'". Der Spiegel. https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html. 
  64. ↑ Shepherd, Christian (12 September 2019). "Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77. 
  65. ↑ Dreyer, June Teufel (July 17, 2003). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars "Taiwan's Evolving Identity". Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=events.event_summary&event_id=31149 Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Retrieved May 20, 2009. "In order to shore up his government's legitimacy, Chiang set about turning Taiwan's inhabitants into Chinese. To use Renan's terminology, Chiang chose to re-define the concept of shared destiny to include the mainland. Streets were re-named; major thoroughfares in Taipei received names associated with the traditional Confucian virtues. The avenue passing in front of the foreign ministry en route to the presidential palace was named chieh-shou (long life), in Chiang's honor. Students were required to learn Mandarin and speak it exclusively; those who disobeyed and spoke Taiwanese Min, Hakka, or aboriginal tongues could be fined, slapped, or subjected to other disciplinary actions." 
  66. ↑ "Starting Anew on Taiwan". Hoover Institution. 2008. http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/17827189.html. "The new KMT concluded that it must "Sinicize" Taiwan if it were ever to unify mainland China. Textbooks were designed to teach young people the dialect of North China as a national language. Pupils also were taught to revere Confucian ethics, to develop Han Chinese nationalism, and to accept Taiwan as a part of China." 
  67. ↑ "Third-Wave Reform". http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=102&CtNode=119. ".... The government initiated educational reform in the 1950s to achieve a number of high-priority goals. First, it was done to help root out fifty years of Japanese colonial influence on the island's populace--"resinicizing" them, one might say- -and thereby guarantee their loyalty to the Chinese motherland. Second, the million mainlanders or so who had fled to Taiwan themselves had the age-old tendency of being more loyal to city, county, or province than to China as a nation. They identified themselves as Hunanese, Cantonese, or Sichuanese first, and as Chinese second." 
  68. ↑ Burbu, Dawa (2001) China's Tibet Policy, Routledge, ISBN:978-0-7007-0474-3, pp. 100–124
  69. ↑ Samdup, Tseten (1993) Chinese population—Threat to Tibetan identity Government of Tibet in exile,
  70. ↑ Warren, James (May 18, 1997). "On Tibet, Senator's Daughter Shows More Spine Than the U.S.". Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-05-18-9705180201-story.html. 
  71. ↑ "They Say We Should Be Grateful" Mass Rehousing and Relocation Programs in Tibetan Areas of China. 2013-06-27. https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/06/27/they-say-we-should-be-grateful/mass-rehousing-and-relocation-programs-tibetan. Retrieved 10 September 2019. 
  72. ↑ "Invasion & After: Tibet Since the Chinese Invasion". Office of Tibet, Washington, D.C.. http://tibetoffice.org/tibet-info/invasion-after. 
  73. ↑ Lodoe, Kalden; Demo, Yangdon; Gelek, Lobsang (September 6, 2019). "Tibetan Religious Festival Marred by Police Presence, State Propaganda". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/festival-09062019162424.html. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 Bowie, Julia; Gitter, David (14 June 2018). "The CCP's Plan to 'Sinicize' Religions". The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/the-ccps-plan-to-sinicize-religions/. 
  75. ↑ "习近平：全面提高新形势下宗教工作水平-新华网" (in zh). 23 April 2016. http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-04/23/c_1118716540.htm. 
  76. ↑ "习近平：决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告-新华网" (in zh). www.xinhuanet.com. 27 October 2017. http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/19cpcnc/2017-10/27/c_1121867529.htm. 
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Gan, Nectar (12 March 2019). "Chinese Protestant church head wants purge of Western influences" (in en). South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3001240/official-head-chinas-protestant-churches-says-religions-must-be. 
  78. ↑ "2014 Annual Report: Religious and Human Rights Persecution in China". Texas, USA: ChinaAid. April 2015. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B024UfutRtHodGVzbWhyLUtCdjg/view. "The National Committee of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement of Protestant Churches in China marked its 60th anniversary in 2014. Subsequently, China's government-sponsored China Christian Council (CCC) and the TSPM orchestrated a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6 to commemorate the anniversary of the TSPM, which included a seminar on the so-called "sinicization" of Christianity. Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, was quoted as saying that "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." Gao Feng, chairman of the CCC, stated that the TSPM would "take on a new mission in this age, adhere to the path of sinicization, and deepen and advance the process of sinicizing Christianity." Wang Zuo'an, director of the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), also reinforced the need for the sinicization of Christianity." 
  79. ↑ "'Sinicization' of Christianity China's aim" (in en). Baptist Press. 6 May 2015. http://bpnews.net/44702/sinicization-of-christianity-chinas-aim. 
  80. ↑ Woo, Ryan (December 25, 2023). "Christmas in China brings glittering decor and foreign influence concerns". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/christmas-china-brings-glittering-decor-foreign-influence-concerns-2023-12-25/. 
  81. ↑ Shan Ren Shen Fu. "The Ninth Assembly of Chinese Catholic Representatives: More smog and pollution in 2017". Asianews.it. http://www.asianews.it/news-en/The-Ninth-Assembly-of-Chinese-Catholic-Representatives:-More-smog-and-pollution-in-2017-39552.html. 
  82. ↑ "Intervention of the Secretary for Relations with States at the International Conference on "Christianity in the Chinese Society: Impact, Interaction and Inculturation"". Holy See Press Office. 26 March 2018. http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/03/26/180326c.html. 
  83. ↑ Valente, Gianni (22 March 2018). "Gallagher: we are not afraid of China's new global leadership - La Stampa" (in it-IT). Vatican Insider. https://www.lastampa.it/vatican-insider/en/2018/03/22/news/gallagher-we-are-not-afraid-of-china-s-new-global-leadership-1.33995315?refresh_ce. 
  84. ↑ "Sinicization of China Church: the plan in full - UCA News" (in en). Union of Catholic Asian News Limited (Hong Kong, China). 31 July 2018. https://www.ucanews.com/news/sinicization-of-china-church-the-plan-in-full/82931. 
  85. ↑ Zhicheng, Wang (31 May 2018). "Ahead of China-Vatican dialogue, a five-year plan to Sinicize the Church under the Party". AsiaNews. http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Ahead-of-China-Vatican-dialogue,-a-five-year-plan-to-Sinicize-the-Church-under-the-Party-44038.html. 
  86. ↑ Jones, Kevin (25 July 2018). "In China, government-aligned bishops release 'Sinicization' plan" (in en). Catholic News Agency. https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/in-china-government-aligned-bishops-release-sinicization-plan-52052. 
  87. ↑ "China's Catholics told to create five-year plan to Sinicise Church". World Watch Monitor. 26 July 2018. https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/coe/chinas-catholics-told-to-formulate-five-year-plan-to-sinicise-church/. 
  88. ↑ https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/41269/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media , Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Catholic News Agency, retrieved June 2nd 2023
  89. ↑ https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2019/05/13/no-opposition-between-sinicization-and-inculturation-parolin-tells-china-media/ , 'No opposition between sinicization and inculturation' Parolin tells China media, Catholic World Report, retrieved June 2nd 2023
  90. ↑ https://www.heraldmalaysia.com/news/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media/47797/1 , Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Herald Malaysia Online, retrieved June 3rd 2023
  91. ↑ https://www.vaticannews.va/zh/vatican-city/news/2019-05/cardinal-parolin-interview-chinese-newspaper-china-holy-see.html , 帕罗林枢机："我们与中国正在开创一种积极的方法", Vatican News
  92. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee (21 September 2019). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/21/world/asia/china-islam-crackdown.html. "The restrictions they now face can be traced to 2015, when Mr. Xi first raised the issue of what he called the "Sinicization of Islam," saying all faiths should be subordinate to Chinese culture and the Communist Party. Last year, Mr. Xi's government issued a confidential directive that ordered local officials to prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions." 
  93. ↑ "杨发明委员：坚持我国伊斯兰教中国化方向-新华网" (in zh). www.xinhuanet.com. 10 March 2018. http://www.xinhuanet.com/2018-03/10/c_1122518319.htm. 
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 Byler, Darren (9 November 2018). "Why Chinese civil servants are happy to occupy Uyghur homes in Xinjiang". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/09/opinions/uyghur-home-visit-opinion-intl/index.html. 
  95. ↑ Westcott, Ben; Xiong, Yong (22 July 2019). "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/22/asia/china-xinjiang-uyghur-muslim-intl-hnk/index.html. 
  96. ↑ "1.5 million Muslims could be detained in China's Xinjiang: academic". Reuters. 14 March 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/15-million-muslims-could-be-detained-in-chinas-xinjiang-academic-idUSKCN1QU2MQ. 
  97. ↑ Baptista, Eduardo (28 September 2020). "Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown" (in en). South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3103253/tiny-muslim-community-chinas-far-south-becomes-latest-target. 
  98. ↑ Seibt, Sébastian (30 September 2020). "Beijing's crackdown on religious minorities takes aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls" (in en). France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/20200930-beijing-s-crackdown-on-religious-minorities-takes-aim-at-10-000-muslim-utsuls. 
  99. ↑ "Thousands of ethnic minority Muslims defy Chinese authorities in defense of mosque" (in en). https://www.cnnphilippines.com/world/2023/6/2/china-mosque-protest.html. 
  100. ↑ "Among Uyghurs, China aims to 'meld Islam with Confucianism'" (in en). September 14, 2023. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/uyghur-sinicizing-islam-09142023171912.html. 

External links

Library resources about
Sinicization



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