Social:Settler colonialism

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Short description: Form of colonialism seeking population replacement with settlers
Boer nomads - Cape Colony, South Africa

Settler colonialism is a type of colonialism in which foreign settlers move to and permanently reside in their non-native land in order to strengthen the dominance of a Colonial Power. It is often used as a tool by the colonial power to permanently replace or marginalize the per-existing population of a region in cases when the land is not previously uninhabited.[1][2][3]

Settler colonialism is a form of exogenous domination typically organized or supported by an imperial authority.[4] Settler colonialism contrasts with exploitation colonialism, which entails an economic policy of conquering territory to exploit its population as cheap or free labor and its natural resources as raw material. In this way, settler colonialism lasts indefinitely, except in the rare event of complete evacuation or settler decolonization.[5]

Settler colonialism was especially prominent in the colonial empires of the European powers between the 16th and 20th centuries. The settling of Boers[6] in South Africa , British,[7] French, Portuguese[8] and Spanish[9] expansion in the Americas as well as the settlement of the Canary Islands by Castile are classical examples of settler colonialism.[10][11]

Origins as a theory

During the 1960s, settlement and colonization were perceived as separate phenomena from colonialism. Settlement endeavors were seen as taking place in empty areas, downplaying the Indigenous inhabitants. Later on in the 1970s and 1980s, settler colonialism was seen as bringing high living standards in contrast to the failed political systems associated with classical colonialism. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the field of settler colonial studies was established[12] distinct but connected to Indigenous studies.[13] Although often credited with originating the field, Australian historian Patrick Wolfe stated that "I didn’t invent Settler Colonial Studies. Natives have been experts in the field for centuries".[14] Additionally, Wolfe's work was preceded by others that have been influential in the field, such as Fayez Sayegh's Zionist Colonialism in Palestine and Settler Capitalism by Donald Denoon.[14][15]

Definition and concept

Settler colonialism occurs when foreign settlers arrive in an already inhabited territory to permanently inhabit it and found a new society. Intrinsically connected to this is the displacement or elimination of existing residents and destruction of their society.[1][2][3]

Some scholars describe the process as inherently genocidal, considering settler colonialism to entail the elimination of existing peoples and cultures,[16] and not only their displacement (see genocide, "the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part").

Depending on the definition, it may be enacted by a variety of means, including mass killing of the previous inhabitants, removal of the previous inhabitants /or cultural assimilation.[5]

Settler colonialism is distinct from migration because immigrants aim to join an existing society, not replace it.[17][18]

Examples

Settler colonial studies has often focused on former British colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand, which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism.[19] However, settler colonialism is not linked to any specific culture and has been practiced by non-Europeans.[2] The settler colonial paradigm has been applied to a wide variety of conflicts around the world, including the Andaman Islands, Argentina ,[20] Australia , British Kenya, the Canary Islands,[10] Fiji, French Algeria,[21] Generalplan Ost, Hawaii,[22] Hokkaido, Ireland, Israel/Palestine, Italian Libya and East Africa,[23][24] Kashmir,[25][26] Korea and Manchukuo,[27][28] Latin America, Liberia, New Zealand, northern Afghanistan,[29][30][31][32] North America, Posen and West Prussia and German South West Africa,[33] Rhodesia, Sápmi,[11][34][35] [36] South Africa , South Vietnam,[37][38][39] and Taiwan.[19][40]

Africa

Canary Islands

During the fifteenth century, the Kingdom of Castile sponsored expeditions by conquistadors to subjugate under Castilian rule the Macaronesian archipelago of the Canary Islands, located off the coast of Morocco and inhabited by the Indigenous Guanche people. Beginning with the start of the conquest of the island of Lanzarote on 1 May 1402 and ending with the surrender of the last Guanche resistance on Tenerife on 29 September 1496 to the now-unified Spanish crown, the archipelago was subject to a settler colonial process involving systematic enslavement, mass murder, and deportation of the Guanches, who were replaced with Spanish settlers, in a process foreshadowing the Iberian colonisation of the Americas that followed shortly thereafter. Also like in the Americas, Spanish colonialists in the Canaries quickly turned to the importation of slaves from mainland Africa as a source of labour due to the decimation of the already small Guanche population by a combination of war, disease, and brutal forced labour. Historian Mohamed Adhikari has labelled the conquest of the Canary Islands as the first overseas European settler colonial genocide.[10][11]

Morocco

This section is an excerpt from Moroccan settlers[ edit ]

South Africa

In 1652, the arrival of Europeans sparked the beginning of settler colonialism in South Africa. The Dutch East India Company was set up at the Cape, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa and Asia during the mid-seventeenth century.[41] The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for ships sailing between Europe and the east. The initial plan by Dutch East India Company officer Jan van Riebeeck was to maintain a small community around the new fort, but the community continued to spread and settle further than originally planned.[6] There was a historic struggle to achieve the intended British sovereignty that was achieved in other parts of the Commonwealth. State sovereignty belonged to the Union of South Africa (1910–61), followed by the Republic of South Africa (1961–1994) and finally the modern day South Africa (1994–Present day).[41]

In 1948, the policy of Apartheid was introduced South Africa in order to segregate the native African population from Boer settlers and ensure the domination of the White populace over non-whites, politically, socially and economically.[42] As of 2014, the South African government has re-opened the period for land claims under the Restitution of Land Rights Amendment Act.[43]

Americas

"Indian Land For Sale" by the U.S. Department of the Interior (1911)

In colonial America, colonial powers created economic dependency and imbalance of trade, incorporating Indigenous nations into spheres of influence and controlling them indirectly with the use of Christian missionaries and alcohol.[44] With the emergence of an independent United States, desire for land and the perceived threat of permanent Indigenous political and spatial structures led to violent relocation of many Indigenous tribes to the American West, in what is known as the Trail of Tears.[45]

In response to American encroachment on native land in the Great Lakes region, the Pan-Indian confederacies of the Northwest Confederacy and Tecumseh's Confederacy emerged. Despite initial victories in both cases, such as St. Clair's defeat or the siege of Detroit, both eventually lost, thereby paving the way for American control over the region. Settlement into conquered land was rapid. Following the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, American settlers poured into southern Ohio, such that by 1810 it had a population of 230,760.[46] The defeat of the confederacies in the Great Lakes paved the way for large land loss in the region, via treaties such as the Treaty of Saginaw which saw the loss of more than 4,000,000 acres of land.[47]

Frederick Jackson Turner, the father of the "frontier thesis" of American history, noted in 1901: "Our colonial system did not start with Spanish War; the U.S. had had a colonial history from the beginning...hidden under the phraseology of 'interstate migration' and territorial organization'".[44] While the United States government and local state governments directly aided this dispossession through the use of military forces, ultimately this came about through agitation by settler society in order to gain access to Indigenous land. Especially in the US South, such land acquisition built plantation society and expanded the practice of slavery.[45] Settler colonialism participated in the formation of US cultures and lasted past the conquest, removal, or extermination of Indigenous people.[48] The practice of writing the Indigenous out of history perpetrated a forgetting of the full dimensions and significance of colonialism at both the national and local levels.[44]

Eurasia

China

Near the end of their rule the Qing tried to colonize Xinjiang, Tibet, and other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal they began a policy of settler colonialism by which Han Chinese were resettled on the frontier.[49] This policy was renewed by the People's Republic of China, led by Chinese Communist Party.[50][51]

Palestine, Zionism and Israel

Writing in the 1990s, the Australian historian Patrick Wolfe is credited with originating the field.[14] He theorized settler colonialism as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, thus distinguishing it from classical colonialism. Wolfe argued that settler colonialism was centered on the control of land, that it continued after the closing of the frontier, and that continued to exist today, classifying Israel as a modern form of settler colonialism.[52] His approach was defining for the field, but has been challenged by other scholars on the basis that many situations involve a combination of elimination and exploitation.[19]

Moses Lissak asserted that the settler-colonial thesis denies the idea that Zionism is the modern national movement of the Jewish people, seeking to reestablish a Jewish political entity in their historical territory. Zionism, Lissak argues, was both a national movement and a settlement movement at the same time, so it was not, by definition, a colonial settlement movement.[53]

Russia and the Soviet Union

Some scholars describe Russia as a settler colonial state, particularly in its expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East, during which it displaced and resettled Indigenous peoples, while practicing settler colonialism.[54][55][56] The annexation of Siberia and the Far East to Russia was resisted by the Indigenous peoples, while the Cossacks often committed atrocities against them.[57] During the Cold War, new forms of Indigenous repression were practiced.[58]

This colonization continued even during the Soviet Union in the 20th century.[59] The Soviet policy also sometimes included the deportation of the native population, as in the case of the Crimean Tatars.[60][unreliable source?]

Taiwan

The ethnic makeup of Taiwan's contemporary population is largely the result of settler colonialism.[61]

Australia

Europeans explored and settled Australia, displacing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The Indigenous Australian population was estimated at about 795,000 at the time of European settlement.[62] The population declined steeply for 150 years following settlement from 1788, due to casualties from infectious disease, the Australian frontier wars and forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration.[63][64]

Responses

Settler colonialism exists in tension with indigenous studies. Some indigenous scholars believe that settler colonialism as a methodology can lead to overlooking indigenous responses to colonialism; however, other practitioners of indigenous studies believe that settler colonialism has important insights that are applicable to their work.[14] Settler colonialism as a theory has also been criticized from the standpoint of postcolonial theory.[14]

Political theorist Mahmoud Mamdani suggested that settlers could never succeed in their effort to become native, and therefore the only way to end settler colonialism was to erase the political significance of the settler–native dichotomy.[19]

According to Chickasaw scholar Jodi Byrd, in contrast to settler, the term arrivant refers to enslaved Africans transported against their will, and to refugees forced into the Americas due to the effects of imperialism.[65]

In his book Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought, political scientist Adam Dahl states that while it has often been recognized that "American democratic thought and identity arose out of the distinct pattern by which English settlers colonized the new world", histories are missing the "constitutive role of colonial dispossession in shaping democratic values and ideals".[66]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Carey, Jane; Silverstein, Ben (2 January 2020). "Thinking with and beyond settler colonial studies: new histories after the postcolonial". Postcolonial Studies 23 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1080/13688790.2020.1719569. "The key phrases Wolfe coined here – that invasion is a ‘structure not an event’; that settler colonial structures have a ‘logic of elimination’ of Indigenous peoples; that ‘settlers come to stay’ and that they ‘destroy to replace’ – have been taken up as the defining precepts of the field and are now cited by countless scholars across numerous disciplines.". 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Cavanagh, Edward; Veracini, Lorenzo (2016). "Introduction" (in en). The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism. Taylor & Francis. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-134-82847-0. "[Settler colonialism is] a system defined by unequal relationships (like colonialism) where an exogenous collective aims to locally and permanently replace indigenous ones (unlike colonialism), settler colonialism has no geographical, cultural or chronological bounds... It can happen at any time, and everyone is a settler if they are part of a collective and sovereign displacement that moves to stay, that moves to establish a permanent homeland by way of displacement." 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 McKay, Dwanna L.; Vinyeta, Kirsten; Norgaard, Kari Marie (September 2020). "Theorizing race and settler colonialism within U.S. sociology" (in en). Sociology Compass 14 (9). doi:10.1111/soc4.12821. ISSN 1751-9020. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/soc4.12821. "Settler-colonialism describes the logic and operation of power when colonizers arrive and settle on lands already inhabited by another group. Importantly, settler colonialism operates through a logic of elimination, seeking to eradicate the original inhabitants through violence and other genocidal acts and to replace the existing spiritual, epistemological, political, social, and ecological systems with those of the settler society". 
  4. ↑ LeFevre, Tate. "Settler Colonialism". Tate A. LeFevre. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0125.xml. "Though often conflated with colonialism more generally, settler colonialism is a distinct imperial formation. Both colonialism and settler colonialism are premised on exogenous domination, but only settler colonialism seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers (usually from the colonial metropole)." 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wolfe, Patrick (2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Fourie, J (2014). "Settler Skills and Colonial Development: The Huguenot Wine-Makers in Eighteenth-Century Dutch South Africa". Economic History Review 67 (4): 932–963. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.12033. 
  7. ↑ Free, Melissa (November 2018). "Settler Colonialism" (in en). Victorian Literature and Culture 46 (3–4): 876–882. doi:10.1017/S1060150318001080. ISSN 1060-1503. 
  8. ↑ Cartwright, Mark. "Portuguese Empire" (in en). https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/. 
  9. ↑ Taylor, Lucy; Lublin, Geraldine (2021-07-03). "Settler colonial studies and Latin America" (in en). Settler Colonial Studies 11 (3): 259–270. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2021.1999155. ISSN 2201-473X. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2201473X.2021.1999155. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Adhikari, Mohamed (7 September 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Adhikari, Mohamed (25 July 2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-1647920548. https://books.google.com/books?id=ht9dEAAAQBAJ. 
  12. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (2013). "'Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41 (2): 313–333. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. 
  13. ↑ Shoemaker, Nancy (1 October 2015). "A Typology of Colonialism | Perspectives on History". https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october-2015/a-typology-of-colonialism. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Kauanui, J. Kēhaulani (3 April 2021). "False dilemmas and settler colonial studies: response to Lorenzo Veracini: 'Is Settler Colonial Studies Even Useful?'" (in en). Postcolonial Studies 24 (2): 290–296. doi:10.1080/13688790.2020.1857023. ISSN 1368-8790. 
  15. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (June 2013). "'Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41 (2): 313–333. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. 
  16. ↑ Short, Damien (2016) (in en). Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-84813-546-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ywE1EAAAQBAJ&q=inherently+genocidal&pg=PP1. 
  17. ↑ Mamdani, Mahmood (2020) (in en). Neither Settler nor Native: The Making and Unmaking of Permanent Minorities. Harvard University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-674-24997-4. 
  18. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (2015). "Settlers are not Migrants" (in en). The Settler Colonial Present. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 32–48. ISBN 978-1-137-37247-5. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Englert, Sai (2020). "Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession". Antipode 52 (6): 1647–1666. doi:10.1111/anti.12659. 
  20. ↑ Larson, Carolyne R. (2020). The Conquest of the Desert: Argentina's Indigenous Peoples and the Battle for History. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 9780826362087. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/78336. 
  21. ↑ Barclay, Fiona; Chopin, Charlotte Ann; Evans, Martin (12 January 2017). "Introduction: settler colonialism and French Algeria". Settler Colonial Studies 8 (2): 115–130. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2016.1273862. 
  22. ↑ Takumi, Roy (1994). "Challenging U.S. Militarism in Hawai'i and Okinawa". Race, Poverty & the Environment 4/5 (4/1): 8–9. ISSN 1532-2874. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41555279. 
  23. ↑ Ertola, Emanuele (15 March 2016). "'Terra promessa': migration and settler colonialism in Libya, 1911–1970". Settler Colonial Studies 7 (3): 340–353. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2016.1153251. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2201473X.2016.1153251. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  24. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (Winter 2018). "Italian Colonialism through a Settler Colonial Studies Lens". Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 19 (3). doi:10.1353/cch.2018.0023. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/712080. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  25. ↑ Raman, Anita D. (2004). "Of Rivers and Human Rights: The Northern Areas, Pakistan's forgotten colony in Jammu and Kashmir.". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 11 (1/2): 187–228. doi:10.1163/157181104323383929. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24675261. 
  26. ↑ Mushtaq, Samreen; Mudasir, Amin (16 October 2021). "'We will memorise our home': exploring settler colonialism as an interpretive framework for Kashmir". Third World Quarterly 42 (12): 3012–3029. doi:10.1080/01436597.2021.1984877. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2021.1984877. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  27. ↑ Lu, Sidney Xu (June 2019). "Eastward Ho! Japanese Settler Colonialism in Hokkaido and the Making of Japanese Migration to the American West, 1869–1888". The Journal of Asian Studies 78 (3): 521–547. doi:10.1017/S0021911819000147. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/eastward-ho-japanese-settler-colonialism-in-hokkaido-and-the-making-of-japanese-migration-to-the-american-west-18691888/540D1FCAC210EBAC61BE93712B01A6AB. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  28. ↑ Uchida, Jun (3 March 2014). Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945. 337. Harvard University Asia Center. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1x07x37. ISBN 978-0674492028. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1x07x37. 
  29. ↑ Christian Bleuer (2012). "State-building, migration and economic development on the frontiers of northern Afghanistan and southern Tajikistan". Journal of Eurasian Studies 3: 69–79. doi:10.1016/j.euras.2011.10.008. 
  30. ↑ Christian Bleuer (October 17, 2014). "From 'Slavers' to 'Warlords': Descriptions of Afghanistan's Uzbeks in Western Writing". Afghanistan Analysts Network. https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/from-slavers-to-warlords-descriptions-of-afghanistans-uzbeks-in-western-writing/. 
  31. ↑ Mundt, Alex; Schmeidl, Susanne; Ziai, Shafiqullah (June 1, 2009). "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Return of Internally Displaced Persons to Northern Afghanistan". Brookings Institution. http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2009/06/01-afghanistan-mundt. 
  32. ↑ "Paying for the Taliban's Crimes: Abuses Against Ethnic Pashtuns in Northern Afghanistan". Human Rights Watch. April 2002. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/afghan2/afghan0402.pdf. 
  33. ↑ Lerp, Dörte (11 October 2013). "Farmers to the Frontier: Settler Colonialism in the Eastern Prussian Provinces and German Southwest Africa". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41 (4): 567–583. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.836361. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2013.836361. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  34. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (25 March 2013). "'Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41 (2): 313–333. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. Retrieved 7 May 2022. 
  35. ↑ Browning, Christopher R. (8 February 2022). "Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism". The Journal of Holocaust Research 36 (1): 30–38. doi:10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985. Retrieved 30 April 2022. 
  36. ↑ Rahman, Smita A.; Gordy, Katherine A.; Deylami, Shirin S. (2022). Globalizing Political Theory. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781000788884. 
  37. ↑ Salemink, Oscar (2003). The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850–1990. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 35–336. ISBN 978-0-8248-2579-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&pg=PA35. 
  38. ↑ Nguyen, Duy Lap (2019). The unimagined community: Imperialism and culture in South Vietnam. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-52614-398-3. 
  39. ↑ Anne-Valérie Schweyer (2019). "The Chams in Vietnam: a great unknown civilization". http://www.gis-reseau-asie.org/en/chams-vietnam-great-unknown-civilization. 
  40. ↑ Tsai, Lin-chin (2019). Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production (Thesis). UCLA.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Cavanagh, E (2013). Settler colonialism and land rights in South Africa: Possession and dispossession on the Orange River. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 10–16. ISBN 978-1-137-30577-0. 
  42. ↑ Mayne, Alan (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0. 
  43. ↑ Weinberg, T (2015). "The Griqua Past and the Limits of South African History, 1902–1994; Settler Colonialism and Land Rights in South Africa: Possession and Dispossession on the Orange River". Journal of Southern African Studies 41: 211–214. doi:10.1080/03057070.2015.991591. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0040-3. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Wolfe 2006
  46. ↑ https://www.issuelab.org/resources/3973/3973.pdf
  47. ↑ https://blogs.cmich.edu/library/2019/11/26/the-1819-treaty-of-saginaw/
  48. ↑ Spady., James O'Neil (2020). Education and the Racial Dynamics of Settler Colonialism in Early America: Georgia and South Carolina, ca. 1700 - ca. 1820. Routledge. ISBN 978-0367437169. https://www.academia.edu/37602761. 
  49. ↑ Wang, Ju-Han Zoe; Roche, Gerald (March 16, 2021). "Urbanizing Minority Minzu in the PRC: Insights from the Literature on Settler Colonialism" (in en). Modern China 48 (3): 593–616. doi:10.1177/0097700421995135. ISSN 0097-7004. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/14776011. 
  50. ↑ Brooks, Jonathan (2021) (in en), Settler Colonialism, Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3965577, ISSN 1556-5068 
  51. ↑ Clarke, Michael (2021-02-16). "Settler Colonialism and the Path toward Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang". Global Responsibility to Protect 13 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1163/1875-984X-13010002. ISSN 1875-9858. 
  52. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  53. ↑ Moshe Lissak, "'Critical' Sociology and 'Establishment' Sociology in the Israeli Academic Community: Ideological Struggles or Academic Discourse?" Israel Studies 1:1 (1996), 247-294.
  54. ↑ Sunderland, Willard (2000). "The 'Colonization Question': Visions of Colonization in Late Imperial Russia". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 48 (2): 210–232. 
  55. ↑ Forsyth, James (1992). A history of the peoples of Siberia. Internet Archive. Cambridge University Press. pp. 201–228, 241–346. ISBN 978-0-521-40311-5. http://archive.org/details/historyofpeoples00fors. 
  56. ↑ Lantzeff, George V.; Pierce, Richard A. (1973). Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier to 1750. McGill-Queen's University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1w0dbpp. 
  57. ↑ Hill, Nathaniel (25 October 2021). "Conquering Siberia: The Case for Genocide Recognition". https://www.genocidewatchblog.com/post/conquering-siberia-the-case-for-genocide-recognition. 
  58. ↑ Bartels, Dennis; Bartels, Alice L. (2006). "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North and Cold War Ideology". Anthropologica 48 (2): 265–279. doi:10.2307/25605315. 
  59. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (2013). "'Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41 (2): 313–333. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. "The domination of Latin America, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Asian part of the Soviet Union by European powers all involved the migration of permanent settlers from the European country to the colonies. These places were colonized.". 
  60. ↑ Pohl, Otto (2015). "The Deportation of the Crimean Tatars in the Context of Settler Colonialism". International Crimes and History (16). http://www.lituanus.org/1998/98_3_02.htm. 
  61. ↑ Tsai, Lin-chin (2019). Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production (PhD thesis). University of California. Retrieved 20 May 2023. Taiwan, an island whose indigenous inhabitants are Austronesian, has been a de facto settler colony due to large-scale Han migration from China to Taiwan beginning in the seventeenth century.
  62. ↑ Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen for Frontier History Revisited (Brisbane 2011), page 15.
  63. ↑ Page, A. (2015, September). The Australian Settler State, Indigenous Agency, and the Indigenous Sector in the Twenty First Century. Australian Political Studies Association Conference.
  64. ↑ Page, A., & Petray, T. (2015). Agency and Structural Constraints: Indigenous Peoples and the Settler-State in North Queensland. Settler Colonial Studies, 5 (2).
  65. ↑ Byrd, Jodi A. (2011-09-06) (in en). The Transit of Empire: Indigenous Critiques of Colonialism. U of Minnesota Press. pp. xix. ISBN 978-1-4529-3317-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=3_JNcXnUjZkC. 
  66. ↑ Dahl 2018, p. 1.

Further reading

  • Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century (edited by Susan Pedersen and Caroline Elkins), Routledge, 2005.
  • Veracini, Lorenzo (2010). Settler Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 182. ISBN 9780230284906. 
  • Wolfe, Patrick, 'Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race' (Verso 2016)
  • Wolfe, Patrick (December 2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. 

External links



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