Social:Language isolate

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Short description: Language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with another language
Locations of a few relatively well-known examples of isolated languages

A language isolate is a language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with another language.[1] Basque in Europe, Ainu[1] in Asia, Sandawe in Africa, Haida and Zuni in North America, Kanoê in South America, and Tiwi in Australia are all examples of language isolates. The exact number of language isolates is yet unknown due to insufficient data on several languages.[2]

One explanation for the existence of language isolates is that they might be the last remaining branch of a larger language family. The language possibly had relatives in the past which have since disappeared without being documented. Another explanation for language isolates is that they developed in isolation from other languages. This explanation mostly applies to sign languages that have arisen independently of other spoken or signed languages.[1][3]

Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families if some of their dialects are judged to be sufficiently different from the standard to be seen as different languages. Examples include Japanese and Georgian: Japanese is now part of the Japonic language family with the Ryukyuan languages, and Georgian is the main language in the Kartvelian language family. There is a difference between language isolates and unclassified languages, but they can be difficult to differentiate when it comes to classifying extinct languages.[1] If such efforts eventually do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one, as happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia , which has been placed in the Pama–Nyungan family.[4] Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language is an isolate.

Genetic relationships

A genetic relationship is when two different languages are descended from a common ancestral language.[5] This is what makes up a language family, which is a set of languages for which sufficient evidence exists to demonstrate that they descend from a single ancestral language and are therefore genetically related.[1] For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin Chinese is related to other Sino-Tibetan languages. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own.[5]

In some situations, a language with no ancestor can arise. This frequently happens with sign languages—most famously in the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language, where deaf children with no language were placed together and developed a new language.[6]

Extinct isolates

Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as language isolates. Despite their great age, Sumerian and Elamite can be safely classified as isolates, as the languages are well enough documented that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related.[7] A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be related to other languages once enough material is recovered, but this is unlikely for extinct languages whose written records have not been preserved.[1]

Many extinct languages are very poorly attested which may lead to them being considered unclassified languages instead of language isolates. This occurs when linguists do not have enough information on a language to classify it as either a language isolate or as a part of another language family.[1]

Isolates v. unclassified languages

Unclassified languages are different from language isolates in that they have no demonstrable genetic relationships to other languages due to a lack of sufficient data. In order to be considered a language isolate, a language needs to have sufficient data for comparisons with other languages through methods of historical-comparative linguistics to show that it does not have any genetic relationships.[1]

Many extinct languages and living languages today are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them. Hattic, Gutian, and Kassite are all considered unclassified languages, but their status is disputed by a minority of linguists.[8] Many extinct languages of the Americas such as Cayuse and Majena may likewise have been isolates.[9] Several unclassified languages could also be language isolates, but linguists cannot be sure of this without sufficient evidence.[1]

Sign language isolates

A number of sign languages have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are language isolates. The most famous of these is the Nicaraguan Sign Language, a well documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries.[6] In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, each with its own sign language with no known connection to any other language.[10] Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness, such as Kata Kolok in Bali, and half a dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand including the Ban Khor Sign Language.[11][12]

These and more are all presumed isolates or small local families, because many deaf communities are made up of people whose hearing parents do not use sign language, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the recorded history of these languages.[11]

Reclassification

Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families because their genetic relationship to other languages has been established. This happened with Japanese and Ryukyuan languages, Korean and Koreanic languages, Atakapa and Akokisa languages, Tol and Jicaque of El Palmar languages, and the Xincan Guatemala language family in which linguists have grouped the Chiquimulilla, Guazacapán, Jumaytepeque, and Yupiltepeque languages.[1]

List of language isolates by continent

Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages or language families.

The status column indicates the degree of endangerment of the language, according to the definitions of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[13] "Vibrant" languages are those in full use by speakers of every generation, with consistent native acquisition by children. "Vulnerable" languages have a similarly wide base of native speakers, but a restricted use and the long-term risk of language shift. "Endangered" languages are either acquired irregularly or spoken only by older generations. "Moribund" languages have only a few remaining native speakers, with no new acquisition, highly restricted use, and near-universal multilingualism. "Extinct" languages have no native speakers, but are sufficiently documented to be classified as isolates.

Africa

With few exceptions, all of Africa's languages have been gathered into four major phyla: Afroasiatic, Niger–Congo, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan.[14] However, the genetic unity of some language families, like Nilo-Saharan,[15][16] is questionable, and so there may be many more language families and isolates than currently accepted. Data for several African languages, like Kwisi, are not sufficient for classification. In addition, Jalaa, Shabo, Laal, Kujargé, and a few other languages within Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic-speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation. Defaka and Ega are highly divergent languages located within Niger–Congo-speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates.[17]

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Bangime 2,000 Vibrant Mali Spoken in the Bandiagara Escarpment. Used as an anti-language.[18]
Hadza 1,000 Vulnerable Tanzania Spoken on the southern shore of Lake Eyasi in the southwest of Arusha Region. Once listed as an outlier among the Khoisan languages.[19] Language use is vigorous, though there are fewer than 1,000 speakers.[20]
Jalaa Extinct Nigeria Strongly influenced by Dikaka, but most vocabulary is very unusual.[21]
Laal 750 Moribund Chad Spoken in three villages along the Chari River in Moyen-Chari Region. Poorly known. Also known as Gori. Possibly a distinct branch of Niger–Congo, Chadic of the Afroasiatic languages, or mixed.[citation needed]
Sandawe 60,000 Vibrant Tanzania Spoken in the northwest of Dodoma Region. Tentatively linked to the Khoe languages.[19]
Shabo 400 Endangered Ethiopia Spoken in Anderaccha, Gecha, and Kaabo of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region. Linked to the Gumuz and Koman families in the proposed Komuz branch of the Nilo-Saharan languages.[22]

Asia

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Burushaski 300,000[23] Vulnerable Pakistan Spoken in the Yasin Valley and Hunza Valley of Gilgit-Baltistan. Linked to Caucasian languages,[24] Indo-European,[25][26] and Na-Dene languages[27][28] in various proposals.
Elamite Extinct Iran Formerly spoken in Elam, along the northeast coast of the Persian Gulf. Attested from around 2800 BC to 300 BC.[29] Some propose a relationship to the Dravidian languages (see Elamo-Dravidian), but this is not well-supported.[30]
Kusunda At least 1 (2023)[31] Moribund Nepal Spoken in Gandaki Province. The recent discovery of a few speakers shows that it is not demonstrably related to anything else.[32]
Puroik[33] 20,000 Vulnerable India
Nihali 2,000 Endangered India Also known as Nahali. Spoken in northeastern Maharashtra and southwestern Madhya Pradesh, along the Tapti River. Strong lexical Munda influence from Korku.[34] Used as anti-language by speakers.[35]
Nivkh 200 Moribund Russia Also known as Gilyak. Spoken in the lower Amur River basin and in the northern part of Sakhalin. Dialects sometimes considered two languages.[36] Has been linked to Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.[37]
Sumerian Extinct Iraq Spoken in Mesopotamia until around 1800 BC, but used as a classical language until 100 AD.[38] Long-extinct but well-attested language of ancient Sumer.
Tambora Extinct Indonesia Poorly documented, extinct since the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, basic vocabulary points towards it being an isolate.

Oceania

Current research considers that the "Papuasphere" centered in New Guinea includes as many as 37 isolates.[39] (The more is known about these languages in the future, the more likely it is for these languages to be later assigned to a known language family.) To these, one must add several isolates found among non-Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia:[40]

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Abinomn 300 Vibrant Indonesia Spoken in the far north of New Guinea. Also known as Bas or Foia. Language is considered safe by UNESCO but endangered by Ethnologue.[41]
Anêm 800 Papua New Guinea Spoken on the northwest coast of New Britain.[42] Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Ata.[43]
Ata 2,000 Spoken in the central highlands of New Britain. Also known as Wasi. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Anem.[44][45]
Busa 370 Spoken in Sandaun Province, northwestern Papua New Guinea. Added to Senu River.[46]
Giimbiyu Extinct Australia Spoken in the northern part of Arnhem Land until the early 1980s. Sometimes considered a small language family consisting of Mengerrdji, Urningangk and Erre.[47] Part of a proposal for the undemonstrated Arnhem Land language family.
Kol 4,000 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken in the northeastern part of New Britain. Possibly related to the poorly-known Sulka, or the Baining languages, suggested as part of the East Papuan languages.[48][49]
Kuot 2,400 Vulnerable Papua New Guinea Spoken on New Ireland. Also known as Panaras. Suggested to form part of the East Papuan family.[49]
Malak-Malak 10 Moribund Australia
Murrinh-patha 1,973 Vibrant Spoken on the eastern coast of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf in the Top End. The proposed linkage to Ngan'gityemerri in one Southern Daly family[50] is generally accepted to be valid.
Mpur 5000 Vibrant Indonesia Spoken in the Mpur and Amberbaken Districts, Tambrauw Regency on the north coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula.
Ngan'gityemerri 26 Moribund Australia Spoken in the Top End along the Daly River. The proposed linkage to Murrinh-patha in one Southern Daly family[50] is generally accepted to be valid.
Pyu 250 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken in Green River Rural LLG in Sandaun Province, near the Indonesian border. Linked to neighboring Left May and Amto-Musan in a proposed Arai-Samaia family.[51]
Sulka 2,500–3,000 Vibrant New Britain, Papua New Guinea Possible language isolate spoken across the eastern end of New Britain. Poorly attested. Suggested to form part of the East Papuan family.[49]
Tayap >50 Moribund Papua New Guinea Formerly spoken in the village of Gapun. Links to Lower Sepik languages and Torricelli languages have been explored, but the general consensus among Linguists is that it is an isolate unrelated to surrounding languages.[52]
Tiwi 2,040 Vulnerable Australia Spoken in the Tiwi Islands in the Timor Sea. Traditionally Tiwi is polysynthetic, but the Tiwi spoken by younger generations is not.[53]
Wagiman 11 Moribund Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. May be distantly related to the Yangmanic languages,[54] which might in turn be a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[40] but neither link has been demonstrated.
Wardaman 50 Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. The extinct and poorly-attested Dagoman and Yangman dialects are sometimes treated as separate languages, forming a Yangmanic family, to which Wagiman may be distantly related.[54] Possibly a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[40] but this has yet to be demonstrated.

Europe

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Basque 751,500 (2016),[55] 1,185,500 passive speakers Vulnerable Spain , France Natively known as Euskara, the Basque language is found in the historical region of the Basque Country between France and Spain. It has no known living relatives, although Aquitanian is commonly regarded as related to or a direct ancestor of Basque. Some linguists have claimed similarities with various languages of the Caucasus[56][57] that are indicative of a relationship, while others have proposed a relation to Iberian[58] and to the hypothetical Dené–Caucasian languages.[59]

North America

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Alsea Extinct United States Poorly attested. Spoken along the central coast of Oregon until the early 1950s.[60] Sometimes regarded as two separate languages. Often included in the Penutian hypothesis in a Coast Oregon Penutian branch.[61]
Atakapa Spoken on the Gulf coast of eastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana until the early 1900s. Often linked to Muskogean in a Gulf hypothesis.[62]
Chimariko Spoken in northern California until the 1950s.[63] Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[64]
Chitimacha Well-attested. Spoken along the Gulf coast of southeastern Louisiana until 1940.[65] Possibly in the Totozoquean family of Mesoamerica.[65]
Coahuilteco United States , Mexico Spoken in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico until the 1700s. Part of the Pakawan hypothesis,[66] has been linked to the hypothesised Hokan languages in a larger group.[67]
Cuitlatec Mexico Spoken in northern Guerrero until the 1960s.[68] Has been proposed to be part of Macro-Chibchan[69] and Uto-Aztecan.[68]
Esselen United States Poorly known. Spoken in the Big Sur region of California until the early 1800s. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[70]
Haida 24 Moribund Canada , United States Spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the northwest coast of British Columbia, and the southern islands of the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska. Some proposals connect it to the Na-Dené languages, but these have fallen into disfavor.[71]
Huave 20,000 Endangered Mexico Spoken in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the southeast of Oaxaca state. Has been linked to various language families, but is still generally considered an isolate.[72]
Karuk 12 Moribund United States Spoken along the Klamath River in northwestern California . Part of the Hokan hypothesis, but little evidence for this.[72]
Keres 13,190 Endangered Spoken in several pueblos throughout New Mexico, including Cochiti and Acoma Pueblos. Has two main dialects: Eastern and Western. Sometimes those two dialects are separated into languages in a Keresan family.[73]
Kutenai 345 Moribund Canada , United States Spoken in the Rockies of northeastern Idaho, northwestern Montana and southeastern British Columbia. Attempts have been made to place it in a Macro-Algic or Macro-Salishan family, but these have not gained significant support.[72]
Natchez Extinct United States last = Smith first = Diane title = University helps Native Americans save languages: Project aims to increase field linguists. work = Seattle Times Newspaper access-date = 2013-06-02 date = 2011-06-15 url = http://seattletimes.com/html/living/2015308947_native16.html#.Tf91h9keT90;facebook

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Purépecha 140,000 Endangered Mexico Spoken in the north of Michoacán state. Language of the ancient Tarascan kingdom. Sometimes regarded as two languages.[72]
Salinan Extinct United States Spoken along the south-central coast of California . Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[74]
Seri 720 Vulnerable Mexico Spoken along the coast of the Gulf of California, in the southwest of Sonora state. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[75]
Siuslaw Extinct United States Spoken on the southwest coast of Oregon until 1960. Likely related to Alsea, Coosan languages, or possibly the Wintuan languages. Part of the Penutian hypothesis.[61]
Takelma Spoken in western Oregon until mid 20th century.[76] Part of the Penutian hypothesis.[76]
Timucua Well attested. Spoken in northern Florida and southern Georgia until the mid- to late 1700s. Briefly spoken in Cuba by a migrant community established in 1763. A connection with the poorly known Tawasa language has been suggested, but this may be a dialect.[77]
Tonkawa Spoken in central and northern Texas until the early 1940s.[citation needed]
Tunica Spoken in western Mississippi, northeastern Louisiana, and southeastern Arkansas until 1948. Attempts at revitalization have produced 32 second-language speakers.[citation needed]
Washo 20 Moribund Spoken along the Truckee River in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California and northwestern Nevada. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[78]
Yana Extinct Well-attested. Spoken in northern California until 1916. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[79]
Yuchi 4 Moribund Spoken in Oklahoma, but formerly spoken in eastern Tennessee. A connection to the Siouan languages has been proposed.[80]
Zuni 9,620 Vulnerable Spoken in Zuni Pueblo in northwestern New Mexico. Links to Penutian[81] and Keres[82] have been proposed.

South America

Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Aikanã 200 Endangered Brazil Spoken in the Amazon of eastern Rondônia. Links to Kanoê and Kwaza have been tentatively proposed.[83] Arawakan has been suggested.[citation needed]
Andoque 370 Colombia, Peru Spoken on the upper reaches of the Japurá River. Extinct in Peru. Possibly Witotoan.[84]
Betoi Extinct Venezuela Spoken in the Apure River basin near the Colombian border until the 18th century. Paezan has been suggested.[84]
Candoshi-Shapra 1,100 Endangered Peru Spoken along the Chapuli, Huitoyacu, Pastaza, and Morona river valleys in southwestern Loreto. Has been linked to various language families, but no agreement exists on its classification.[85]
Canichana Extinct Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos region of Beni Department until around 2000. Connections with various language families have been proposed, none widely accepted.[86]
Cayuvava 4 Moribund Spoken in the Amazon west of Mamore River, north of Santa Ana del Yacuma in the Beni Department.[87]
Chimane 5,300 Vulnerable Spoken along the Beni river in Beni Department. Also spelled Tsimané. Sometimes split into multiple languages in a Moséten family. Linked to the Chonan languages in a Moseten-Chonan hypothesis.[88]
Chiquitano 5,900 Endangered Bolivia, Brazil
Cofán 2,400 Colombia, Ecuador Spoken in northern Sucumbíos Province and southern Putumayo Department. Also called A'ingae.[89] Sometimes classified as Chibchan, but the similarities appear to be due to borrowings. Seriously endangered in Colombia.[90]
Fulniô 1,000 Moribund Brazil Spoken in the states of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and the northern part of Bahia. Divided into two dialects, Fulniô and Yatê.[91] Sometimes classified as a Macro-Jê language.[92][93]
Guató 6 Spoken in the far south of Mato Grosso near the Bolivian border. Has been classified as Macro-Jê, but this is disputed.[94]
Itonama 5 Bolivia Spoken in the far-eastern part of Beni Department. A relationship to Paezan has been suggested.[95]
Kamëntsá 4,000 Endangered Colombia Spoken in Sibundoy in the Putumayo Department. Also known as Camsa, Coche, Sibundoy, Kamentxa, Kamse, or Camëntsëá.[citation needed]
Kanoê 5 Moribund Brazil Spoken in southeastern Rondônia. Also known as Kapishana. Tentatively linked to Kwaza and Aikanã.[83] Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.[96]
Kunza Extinct Chile Spoken in areas near Salar de Atacama until the 1950s. Also known as Atacameño. Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.[96]
Kwaza 54 Moribund Brazil Spoken in eastern Rondônia. Connections have been proposed with Aikanã and Kanoê.[83]
Leco 20 Bolivia Spoken at the foot of the Andes in the department of La Paz.[97]
Mapuche 260,000 Vulnerable Chile , Argentina Spoken in areas of the far-southern Andes and in the Chiloé Archipelago. Also known as Mapudungun, Araucano or Araucanian.[98] Variously part of Andean,[69] Macro-Panoan,[96] or Mataco–Guaicuru[99] proposals. Sometimes Huilliche is treated as a separate language, reclassifying Mapuche into an Araucanian family.[100]
Munichi Extinct Peru Spoken in the southern part of Loreto Region until the late 1990s. Possibly evolved either from a mixed language or a sister language to Proto-Arawak.[101]
Movima 1,400 Vulnerable Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos, in the north of Beni Department. Affiliations with Canichana, Chibcha and Macro-Tucanoan have been proposed, none of these have been proven.[102]
Oti Extinct Brazil Spoken in São Paulo until the early 1900s. Macro-Jê has been suggested.[103]
Páez 60,000 Vulnerable Colombia Spoken in the northern part of Cauca Department. Several proposed relationships in the Paezan hypothesis but nothing conclusive.[104]
Puelche Extinct Argentina , Chile
Tequiraca Peru Spoken in the central part of Loreto until the 1950s. Also known as Auishiri. A connection with Canichana has been proposed.[citation needed]
Trumai 50 Moribund Brazil Settled on the upper Xingu River. Currently reside in the Xingu National Park in the northern part of Mato Grosso.[105]
Urarina 3,000 Vulnerable Peru Spoken in the central part of the Loreto Region.[106] Part of the Macro-Jibaro proposal.[107]
Waorani 2,000 Ecuador, Peru Also known as Sabela. Spoken between the Napo and Curaray rivers. Could be spoken by several groups living in isolation.[108]
Warao 28,000 Endangered Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela Spoken in the Orinoco Delta. Sometimes linked to Paezan.[96]
Yaghan Extinct Chile Spoken in far-southern Tierra del Fuego until 2022. Also called Yámana.[109]
Yaruro 7,900 Vibrant Venezuela Spoken along the Orinoco, Cinaruco, Meta, and Apure rivers. Linked to the extinct Esmeralda language.[110]
Yuracaré 2,700 Endangered Bolivia Spoken in the foothills of the Andes, in Cochabamba and Beni Departments. Connections to Mosetenan, Pano–Tacanan, Arawakan, and Chonan have been suggested.[111]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Campbell, Lyle (2010-08-24). "Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?" (in en). Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 36 (1): 16–31. doi:10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900. ISSN 2377-1666. 
  2. ↑ p. xi. Lyle Campbell. 2018. "Introduction". Language Isolates edited by Lyle Campbell, pp. xi–xiv. Routledge.
  3. ↑ Urban, Matthias (April 2021). "The geography and development of language isolates" (in en). Royal Society Open Science 8 (4): rsos.202232, 202232. doi:10.1098/rsos.202232. ISSN 2054-5703. PMID 33996125. Bibcode: 2021RSOS....802232U. 
  4. ↑ Bradley, John (2016). Wuka nya-nganunga li-Yanyuwa li-Anthawirriyarra = Language for us, the Yanyuwa Saltwater People: a Yanyuwa encyclopaedia. Volume 1. Jean F. Kirton, Elfreda MacDonald. North Melbourne, Vic. ISBN 978-1-925003-67-3. OCLC 957570810. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Terrence Kaufman. Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-07893-4. OCLC 16525266. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Senghas, Ann; Coppola, Marie (July 2001). "Children Creating Language: How Nicaraguan Sign Language Acquired a Spatial Grammar" (in en). Psychological Science 12 (4): 323–328. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00359. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 11476100. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9280.00359. 
  7. ↑ Roger D. Woodard, ed (2004). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56256-2. OCLC 59471649. 
  8. ↑ Mallory, J. P. (2000). The Tarim mummies: ancient China and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the West, with 190 illustrations, 13 in color. Victor H. Mair. New York, N.Y.: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05101-1. OCLC 43378559. 
  9. ↑ A., Leitch, Barbara (1979). A Concise dictionary of Indian tribes of North America. Algonac, MI. OCLC 868981165. 
  10. ↑ T., Muzale, H. R. (2004). Kamusi ya Lugha ya Alama ya Tanzania (LAT) = Tanzanian Sign Language (TSL) dictionary: Kiswahili-TSL-English. Languages of Tanzania Project, University of Dar es Salaam. ISBN 9987-691-02-1. OCLC 67947374. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 de Vos, Connie (March 2011). "Kata Kolok Color Terms and the Emergence of Lexical Signs in Rural Signing Communities" (in en). The Senses and Society 6 (1): 68–76. doi:10.2752/174589311X12893982233795. ISSN 1745-8927. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2752/174589311X12893982233795. 
  12. ↑ Nonaka, Angela M. (July 2009). "Estimating size, scope, and membership of the speech/sign communities of undocumented indigenous/village sign languages: The Ban Khor case study" (in en). Language & Communication 29 (3): 210–229. doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2009.02.004. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0271530909000202. 
  13. ↑ "UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/. 
  14. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2017. African language isolates. In Language Isolates, edited by Lyle Campbell, pp. 176–206. Routledge.
  15. ↑ Starostin, George. "The Nilo-Saharan hypothesis tested through lexicostatistics: current state of affairs" (in en). https://www.academia.edu/21582071. 
  16. ↑ Harald Hammarström; Robert Forkel; Martin Haspelmath; Sebastian Bank (2020-04-16), "Linguistics", glottolog/glottolog: Glottolog database 4.2.1, doi:10.5281/zenodo.3754591, https://zenodo.org/record/3754591, retrieved 2020-08-12 
  17. ↑ Blench, Roger. "Niger-Congo: an Alternative View". http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/Niger-Congo%20an%20alternative%20view.pdf. 
  18. ↑ Hantgan, Abbie; List, Johann-Mattis (September 2018). Bangime: Secret Language, Language Isolate, or Language Island?. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01867003. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Witzlack-Makarevich, Alena; Nakagawa, Hirosi (2019). "Linguistic Features and Typologies in Languages Commonly Referred to as 'Khoisan'". in Ekkehard-Wolff, H.. The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics. CUP. pp. 382–416. 
  20. ↑ Miller, Kirk. "Highlights of Hadza Fieldwork". https://www.academia.edu/36533860. 
  21. ↑ Kleinewillinghofer, Ulrich (2001). "Jalaa: An Almost Forgotten Language of Northeastern Nigeria: A Language Isolate?". Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 16–17: 239–271. 
  22. ↑ Ahland, Colleen (2010). "The Classification of Gumuz and Koman Languages". Language Isolates in Africa Workshop. 
  23. ↑ "Burushaski Script In Roman Perso Arabic Characters Okayed". 2 February 2023. https://www.dawn.com/news/1734892/burushaski-script-in-roman-perso-arabic-characters-okayed. 
  24. ↑ "John D Bengtson". http://jdbengt.net/biblio.htm. 
  25. ↑ Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View". Sino-Platonic Papers 239: 8. http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf. Retrieved 5 April 2014. 
  26. ↑ Casule, Ilija. 2003. Evidence for the Indo-European laryngeals in Burushaski and its genetic affiliation with Indo-European. The Journal of Indo-European Studies 31:1–2, pp 21–86.
  27. ↑ John Bengtson, Some features of Dene–Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque). Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL) 30.4: 33–54,
  28. ↑ John Bengtson and V. Blazek, "Lexica Dene–Caucasica". Central Asiatic Journal 39, 1995, 11–50 & 161–164
  29. ↑ Stolper, Matthew W. 2008. Elamite. In The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. p. 47-50.
  30. ↑ David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian", Language vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships", Current Anthropology vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)
  31. ↑ "The language that doesn't use 'no'". https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220804-kusunda-the-language-isolate-with-no-word-for-no. 
  32. ↑ "Resuscitating dying Kusunda language". Kathmandupost.com. 2019-01-04. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/01/04/resuscitating-dying-kusunda-language. 
  33. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2011. (De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconsidering the evidence
  34. ↑ "Nihali". http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/nll. 
  35. ↑ Nagaraja, K.S (2014). The Nihali Language. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. p. 250. ISBN 978-81-7343-144-9. 
  36. ↑ Fortescue, Michael. 2016. Comparative Nivkh Dictionary. Languages of the World/Dictionaries (LW/D) 62. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN:978-3-86288-687-6
  37. ↑ Fortescue, Michael (2011). "The relationship of Nivkh to Chukotko-Kamchatkan revisited". Lingua 121 (8): 1359–1376. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001. 
  38. ↑ Joan Oates (1979). Babylon [Revised Edition] Thames and Hudston, Ltd. 1986 p. 30, 52–53.
  39. ↑ Palmer, Bill (2017). "Language families of the New Guinea Area". in Bill Palmer. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1515/9783110295252-001. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=v2VCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9. Retrieved 2020-08-03. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Evans, N. "Introduction" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region". Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
  41. ↑ "Size and vitality of Abinomn" (in en). https://www.ethnologue.com/size-and-vitality/bsa. 
  42. ↑ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds (2019). "Papua New Guinea languages". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International. https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG/languages. 
  43. ↑ Stebbins, Tonya; Evans, Bethwyn; Terrill, Angela (2018). "The Papuan languages of Island Melanesia". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 775–894. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7. 
  44. ↑ Ross, Malcolm (2001) (in en-AU), Is there an East Papuan phylum? Evidence from pronouns, Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-0-85883-445-3, https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/94801, retrieved 2020-08-12 
  45. ↑ Ross, Malcolm (2005) (in en-AU), Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages, Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-0-85883-562-7, https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/84328, retrieved 2020-08-12 
  46. ↑ NewGuineaWorld, Senu River
  47. ↑ Campbell, R. "A Sketch Grammar of Urningangk, Erre and Mengerrdji: the Giimbiyu languages of Western Arnhem Land". Honours thesis. University of Melbourne, 2006.
  48. ↑ "Kol". http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/10809. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Dunn, Michael; Reesnik, Ger; Terrill, Angela (2002). "The East Papuan Languages: A Preliminary Typological Appraisal". Oceanic Linguistics 41 (1): 28–62. doi:10.1353/ol.2002.0019. https://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Linguistic%20Society%20of%20America,%20MUSE/Dunn_East_OceanLing_2002_1555925.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2021. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Green, I. "The Genetic Status of Murrinh-patha" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region". Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
  51. ↑ NewGuineaWorld, Arai and Samaia Rivers
  52. ↑ Kulick, Don; Terrill, Angela (2019). A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language. Pacific Linguistics 661. Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Inc.. ISBN 978-1-5015-1220-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=VXWcDwAAQBAJ. 
  53. ↑ Lee, Jennifer (1987). "Tiwi Today: A Study of Language Change in a Contact Situation". Pacific Linguistics: 50. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/145421/1/PL-C96.pdf. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Merlan, F. "A Grammar of Wardaman: a language of the Northern Territory of Australia." Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994.
  55. ↑ (in French) VI° Enquête Sociolinguistique en Euskal herria (Communauté Autonome d'Euskadi, Navarre et Pays Basque Nord) (2016)
  56. ↑ Hualde, José Ignacio; Lakarra, Joseba.; Trask, R. L. (Robert Lawrence) (1995). Towards a history of the Basque language. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81. ISBN 978-90-272-8567-6. OCLC 709596553. 
  57. ↑ Mallory, J. P. (1989). In search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology, and myth. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05052-X. OCLC 20394139. 
  58. ↑ Orduña Aznar, Eduardo (2005). "Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos". Palaeohispanica 5: 491–506. https://ifc.dpz.es/publicaciones/ver/id/2622. 
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  60. ↑ Buckley, Eugene (1989). "The Structure of the Alsea Verb Root: Papers from the 1989 Hokan-Penutian Workshop. Ed. Scott DeLancey". University of Oregon Papers in Linguistics 2 (17). 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Grant, A.P. (1997). "Coast Oregon Penutian: Problems and Possibilities". International Journal of American Linguistics 63 (1): 144–156. doi:10.1086/466316. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/466316. Retrieved 7 February 2021. 
  62. ↑ Munro, Pamela (1994). "Gulf and Yuki-Gulf". Anthropological Linguistics 36 (2): 125–222. ISSN 0003-5483. 
  63. ↑ Golla, Victor (2011). Californian Indian Languages. University of California Press. p. 89. 
  64. ↑ Jany, Carmen (2009). Chimariko Grammar: Areal and Typographical Perspective. Santa Barbara: University of California Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-520-09875-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=AWklDQAAQBAJ&q=jany+chimariko&pg=PR13. Retrieved 7 February 2021. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Brown, Cecil; Wichmann, Soren; Beck, Dacid (2014). "Chitimacha: a Mesoamerican Language Spoken in the Lower Mississippi Valley". International Journal of American Linguistics 80 (4): 426–484. doi:10.1086/677911. 
  66. ↑ Campbell, Lyle (1996). "Coahuiltecan: A Closer Look". Anthropological Linguistics 38 (4): 620–634. 
  67. ↑ Langdon, Margaret (2011). Comparative Hokan-Coahuiltecan Studies: A Survey and Appraisal. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-088783-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=spa8TemcC3IC&q=hokan+coahuiltecan. Retrieved 9 February 2021. 
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  70. ↑ Leedom Shaul, David (1995). "The Huelel (Esselen) language". International Journal of American Linguistics 61 (5): 191–239. doi:10.1086/466251. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/466251. Retrieved 10 February 2021. 
  71. ↑ Levine, Robert D. (1979). "Haida and Na-Dene: A new look at the evidence". International Journal of American Linguistics 45 (2): 151–170. doi:10.1086/465587. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages – The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, Oxford University Press.. 
  73. ↑ Miller, Wick (1963). "Proto-Keresan Phonology". International Journal of American Linguistics 29 (4): 310–330. doi:10.1086/464748. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/464748. Retrieved 11 February 2021. 
  74. ↑ Turner, Katherina (1983). "Areal and Genetic linguistic affiliations of the Salinan". Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 8 (2): 215–247. https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/482/ling.wp.v8.n2.paper6.pdf;sequence=1. Retrieved 12 February 2021. 
  75. ↑ Marlett, Stephen. "La situación sociolingüística de la lengua seri en 2006". lengamer.org. http://www.lengamer.org/publicaciones/trabajos/seri_socio.pdf. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Kendall, Daythall (1997). "The Takelma Verb: Towards Proto-Takelma-Kalapuyan". International Journal of American Linguistics 63 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1086/466312. 
  77. ↑ Granberry, Julian (1990). "A grammatical sketch of Timucua". International Journal of American Linguistics 56 (1): 60–101. doi:10.1086/466138. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/466138. 
  78. ↑ Mithun, Marianne (2001). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-521-29875-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ALnf3s2m7PkC&q=yuchi. Retrieved 17 February 2021. 
  79. ↑ Mithun, Marianne (2001). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 564. ISBN 978-0-521-29875-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ALnf3s2m7PkC&q=yuchi. Retrieved 17 February 2021. 
  80. ↑ Mithun, Marianne (2001). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 571. ISBN 978-0-521-29875-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ALnf3s2m7PkC&q=yuchi. Retrieved 17 February 2021. 
  81. ↑ Goddard, Ives (1996). "The classification of the native languages of North America.". in Goddard, I. Handbook of North American Indians: Languages. pp. 290–323. 
  82. ↑ Campbell, L; Mithun, M (2014). The Languages of Native America:Historical and Comparative Assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-292-76850-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=maGDBAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 17 February 2021. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 Van der Voort, Hein. 2005. Kwaza in a comparative perspective. International Journal of American Linguistics 71: 365–412.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 "South America". Atlas of the World's Languages. London: Routledge. 2007. 
  85. ↑ Fabre, Alain. "Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos. CANDOSHI". http://www.ling.fi/Entradas%20diccionario/Dic=Candoshi.pdf. 
  86. ↑ Crevils, Mily. "Tomo II: Amazonia – Canichana". Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University. https://www.ru.nl/cls/our-research/completed-research-projects/completed-projects/lenguas-de-bolivia-es/lenguas-de-bolivia/tomo-ii-amazonia/. 
  87. ↑ Crevils, Mily. "Tomo II: Amazonia – Cayubaba". Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University. https://www.ru.nl/cls/our-research/completed-research-projects/completed-projects/lenguas-de-bolivia-es/lenguas-de-bolivia/tomo-ii-amazonia/. 
  88. ↑ Sakel, Jeanette. "Tomo I: Ámbito andino – Mosetén y Chimane (Tsimane')". Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University. https://www.ru.nl/cls/our-research/completed-research-projects/completed-projects/lenguas-de-bolivia-es/lenguas-de-bolivia/tomo-ambito-andino/. 
  89. ↑ "Cofan". http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1043. 
  90. ↑ Stark, Louisa (1985). "Chapter 3: Indigenous Languages of Lowland Ecuador: History and Current Status". in Manells Klein, Harriet; Stark, Louisa. South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect. University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-73732-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMaDQAAQBAJ&q=Cofan. Retrieved 21 February 2021. 
  91. ↑ "Yaté". http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1642. 
  92. ↑ Crevils, Mily (2012). "Chapter III: Language Endangerment in South America:The Clock is Ticking". in Campbell, Lyle; Grondona, Veronica. Classification of the Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. De Gruyter. p. 185. ISBN 978-3-11-025803-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=pA-ryJRcG3AC&q=Guat%C3%B3&pg=PA59. Retrieved 21 February 2021. 
  93. ↑ Melatti, Julio Cezar. "Aspectos culturais (não linguísticos) dos povos falantes de línguas do tronco Macro-Jê-Roteiro para discussão no IX Encontro Macro-Jê". http://www.juliomelatti.pro.br/notas/n-aspectos-culturais-macro-je.pdf. 
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  95. ↑ Crevils, Mily. "Tomo II: Amazonia – Itonama". Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University. https://www.ru.nl/cls/our-research/completed-research-projects/completed-projects/lenguas-de-bolivia-es/lenguas-de-bolivia/tomo-ii-amazonia/. 
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 Kaufman, Terrence. 1994. The native languages of South America. In: Christopher Moseley and R. E. Asher (eds.), Atlas of the World's Languages, 59–93. London: Routledge.
  97. ↑ Van der Kerke, Simon. "Tomo I: Ámbito andino – Leco". Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University. https://www.ru.nl/cls/our-research/completed-research-projects/completed-projects/lenguas-de-bolivia-es/lenguas-de-bolivia/tomo-ambito-andino/. 
  98. ↑ Zúñiga, Fernando (2006). Los mapuches y su lengua. Santiago de Chile: Centro de Estudios Públicos. p. 402. 
  99. ↑ Viegas Barros, Jose Pedro (2013). "La hipótesis de parentesco Guaicurú-Mataguayo: estado actual de la cuestión". Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica 5 (2): 293–333. doi:10.26512/rbla.v5i2.16269. https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/28247. Retrieved 21 February 2021. 
  100. ↑ Mason, John Alden (1950). ""The Languages of South America"". in steward, Julian. Handbook of South American Indians. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin. pp. 157–317. 
  101. ↑ Gibson, Michael Luke (2008). El Munichi: Un idioma que se extingue. Yarinacocha: Instituto Linguistico de Verano. p. 19. http://repositorio.cultura.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/CULTURA/444/El_munichi_un_idioma_que_se_extingue-slp42_myr_.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y. Retrieved 21 February 2021. 
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  104. ↑ Adelaar, Willem; Muysken, Pieter (2004). The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 393–397. 
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  109. ↑ Vega, Jorge (31 May 2019). "In Chile's remote south, the last speaker of an ancient language fights to keep it alive". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-language-indigenous/in-chiles-remote-south-the-last-speaker-of-an-ancient-language-fights-to-keep-it-alive-idUSKCN1T11YU. 
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Bibliography

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External links



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