Biology:Prostasomes

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Prostasomes are extracellular vesicles (40-500 nm in diameter) secreted by the prostate gland epithelial cells into seminal fluid.[1] They possess an unusual lipid composition and a tight and highly ordered structure of their lipid bilayer membrane, resembling that of lipid raft domains. Prostasomes appear to improve sperm motility and protect against attacks from the female immune defense during the passage to the egg.[2] The name prostasomes was coined in the early 1980s by combining the terms "prosta"=prostate and "soma" (Greek for "body"). Around this time, the first functional studies of prostasomes were also performed.[3][4][5][6][7]

Cancerous prostate cells and prostate cells with low differentiation continue to produce and secrete prostasomes.[8] Possibly, the high incidence of prostate cancer in elderly men could be due to the immunomodulatory properties of prostasomes, protecting the cancer from attack by the immune system.[citation needed]

Fusion of prostasomes with the sperm plasma membrane is required for regulation of different aspects of sperm function, such as motility and capacitation.[9] Prostasomes have also been implicated in the interaction between prostatic cancer cells and their microenvironment.[10]

Immune regulating proteins found in prostasomes include: amino-peptidase N (CD13); dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26); enkephalinase (neutral endopeptidase, CD10); angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, CD143); tissue factor TF (CD142, thromboplastin); decay accelerating factor (CD55); protectin (CD59, inhibitor of MAC) and complement regulatory membrane cofactor protein (CD46).[11][12][13] Prostasomes also contain high levels of the divalent cations: Zn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+.[citation needed]

Historical background of prostasome research

Year
1977-78 An ATPase activity in seminal plasma indicated an occurrence of membrane-surrounded extracellular vesicles [14][15][16]
1981 The first association between prostasomes and fertility was reported [17]
1983 The first electron microscopic pictures of prostasomes inside storage vesicles (multivesicular bodies) in cytoplasm of prostate epithelial cells and their extracellular release into lumen of the prostate [18][19]
1984 The role of prostasomes in infertility and prostate cancer was investigated [20]
1986-89 Studies on ATPases on the prostasomal surface [21][22][23][24]
1989 The prostasomal membrane was found to have a much higher cholesterol/phospholipid ratio than ordinary cellular membranes [25]
1990 Nucleic acid was found to be associated with prostasomes.[26] An interaction between prostasomes and sperm was shown [27]
1991-94 Prostasomes and their role in immunosuppression were investigated in several articles.[28][29][30] Granulophysin (CD63) was suggested as a marker for prostasomes[31]
1995-2001 Monoclonal antibodies against prostasomes were produced and several studies involving these antibodies were performed [32][33][34] as well as prostasome-sperm interaction studies.[35][36][37][38][39][40] Prostasomes were discovered in prostatic fluid of other species.[41][42] Prostatic cancer cell lines were found to produce prostasomes.[43][44] Prostasomes displayed anti-bacterial activity[45]
2001 Autoantibodies against prostasomes were evaluated as biomarkers for prostate cancer [46]
2003 The first comprehensive shotgun proteomics of the prostasome proteome [47] and it has been followed by two others [48][49]
2005 Haemostasis coupled to prostasomes and the prostasomal membrane in fertility and in cancer [50][51][52]
2009- Investigation of prostasomal DNA.[53][54][55] DNA was found in both non-malignant prostasomes as well as in prostate cancer (PC3) cell derived prostasomes/exosomes[53]
2009- Prostasomes as a serum biomarker of prostate cancer [56]
2015 Lipid rafts purified from prostasome membranes [57]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "The prostasome: its secretion and function in man". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Biomembranes 822 (2): 203–18. September 1985. doi:10.1016/0304-4157(85)90008-5. PMID 2992593. 
  2. ↑ "Prostasomes--their effects on human male reproduction and fertility". Human Reproduction Update 12 (3): 283–92. 2006. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmi052. PMID 16373403. 
  3. ↑ "A biochemical and ultrastructural study on the endogenous protein kinase activity of secretory granule membranes of prostatic origin in human seminal plasma". Journal of Ultrastructure Research 78 (2): 206–14. February 1982. doi:10.1016/s0022-5320(82)80024-5. PMID 6283103. 
  4. ↑ "Stimulation of sperm progressive motility by organelles in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 16 (2): 85–90. 1982. doi:10.3109/00365598209179734. PMID 7123173. 
  5. ↑ "Distribution of cyclic AMP in human seminal plasma and its relation to sperm progressive motility". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 16 (2): 91–5. 1982. doi:10.3109/00365598209179735. PMID 6289426. 
  6. ↑ "Promotive effect on human sperm progressive motility by prostasomes". Urological Research 10 (5): 253–7. 1982. doi:10.1007/bf00255932. PMID 6219486. 
  7. ↑ "Calcium, magnesium, and zinc contents in organelles of prostatic origin in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 16 (3): 199–203. 1982. doi:10.3109/00365598209179753. PMID 6219456. 
  8. ↑ "The Janus-faced nature of prostasomes: their pluripotency favours the normal reproductive process and malignant prostate growth". Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases 7 (1): 21–31. 2004. doi:10.1038/sj.pcan.4500684. PMID 14999234. 
  9. ↑ Aalberts, Marian; Stout, Tom A E; Stoorvogel, Willem (January 2014). "Prostasomes: extracellular vesicles from the prostate". Reproduction 147 (1): R1–R14. doi:10.1530/REP-13-0358. ISSN 1470-1626. PMID 24149515. https://rep.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/rep/147/1/R1.xml. 
  10. ↑ Carlsson, L.; Lennartsson, L.; Nilsson, B.O.; Nilsson, S.; Ronquist, G. (2000). "Growth–Inhibitory Effect of Prostasomes on Prostatic Cancer Cell Lines in Culture". European Urology 38 (4): 468–474. doi:10.1159/000020326. PMID 11025388. https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/20326. 
  11. ↑ "Prostasomes and human reproduction". Microscopy of Reproduction and Development: A Dynamic Approach. Rome: Antonio Delfino Editore. 1997. pp. 213–219. 
  12. ↑ "Prostasomes". Prostasomes: proceedings from a symposium held at the Wenner-Gren Centre, Stockholm, in June 2001. London: Portland. 2002. pp. 1–9. ISBN 978-1-85578-151-1. 
  13. ↑ "Prostasomes: a role in prostatic disease?". BJU International 94 (7): 985–9. November 2004. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2004.05091.x. PMID 15541114. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/18785/1/Lwaleed%252C_et_al_-_BJU_International_2004.pdf. 
  14. ↑ "Restoration of detergent-inactivated adenosine triphosphatase activity of human prostatic fluid with concanavalin A". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Enzymology 483 (2): 483–6. August 1977. doi:10.1016/0005-2744(77)90078-x. PMID 142513. 
  15. ↑ "An Mg2+ and Ca2+-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase in human prostatic fluid: part I". Andrologia 10 (4): 261–72. 1978. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0272.1978.tb03030.x. PMID 152589. 
  16. ↑ "An Mg2+ and Ca2+-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase in human prostatic fluid--part II". Andrologia 10 (6): 427–33. 1978. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0272.1978.tb03064.x. PMID 153718. 
  17. ↑ "Abnormal deficiency of both Mg2+ and Ca2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase and secretory granules and vesicles in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 15 (2): 85–90. 1981. doi:10.3109/00365598109179581. PMID 6120566. 
  18. ↑ "[Prostasomes--a newly discovered organelle that increases sperm motility]". Läkartidningen 80 (9): 810–3. March 1983. PMID 6865591. 
  19. ↑ "Ultrastructural localization of the prostasome - an organelle in human seminal plasma". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences 88 (2): 63–80. 1983. doi:10.3109/03009738309178440. PMID 6649193. 
  20. ↑ "Prostatic origin of fucosyl transferase in human seminal plasma--a study on healthy controls and on men with infertility or with prostatic cancer". Urological Research 12 (5): 243–7. 1984. doi:10.1007/bf00256148. PMID 6240149. 
  21. ↑ "Prostasomes in human semen contain ADP and GDP". Acta Europaea Fertilitatis 17 (4): 273–6. 1986. PMID 3577591. 
  22. ↑ "Effect of modulators on prostasome membrane-bound ATPase in human seminal plasma". European Journal of Clinical Investigation 17 (3): 231–6. June 1987. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.1987.tb01241.x. PMID 2957209. 
  23. ↑ "Zinc ion stimulation of ATP cleavage by prostasomes from human seminal plasma". Urologia Internationalis 43 (6): 334–40. 1988. doi:10.1159/000281386. PMID 2977004. 
  24. ↑ "Prostasome membrane associated enzyme activities and semen parameters in men attending an infertility clinic". Urologia Internationalis 43 (3): 133–8. 1988. doi:10.1159/000281325. PMID 2902707. 
  25. ↑ "Human prostasome membranes exhibit very high cholesterol/phospholipid ratios yielding high molecular ordering". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes 984 (2): 167–73. September 1989. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(89)90212-5. PMID 2548623. 
  26. ↑ "Nucleic acid association to human prostasomes". Archives of Andrology 24 (1): 1–10. 1990. doi:10.3109/01485019008986852. PMID 1691619. 
  27. ↑ "Interaction between prostasomes and spermatozoa from human semen". Archives of Andrology 24 (2): 147–57. 1990. doi:10.3109/01485019008986874. PMID 2327824. 
  28. ↑ "Extracellular organelles (prostasomes) are immunosuppressive components of human semen". Clinical and Experimental Immunology 86 (3): 550–6. December 1991. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.1991.tb02968.x. PMID 1747961. 
  29. ↑ "Immunosuppression by human seminal plasma--extracellular organelles (prostasomes) modulate activity of phagocytic cells". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 28 (2): 97–103. September 1992. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0897.1992.tb00767.x. PMID 1337434. 
  30. ↑ "Physiologic relevance of the membrane attack complex inhibitory protein CD59 in human seminal plasma: CD59 is present on extracellular organelles (prostasomes), binds cell membranes, and inhibits complement-mediated lysis". The Journal of Experimental Medicine 177 (5): 1409–20. May 1993. doi:10.1084/jem.177.5.1409. PMID 7683035. 
  31. ↑ "Expression of a common secretory granule specific protein as a marker for the extracellular organelles (prostasomes) in human semen". Fertility and Sterility 61 (4): 755–9. April 1994. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(16)56658-8. PMID 8150122. 
  32. ↑ "Adherence of human prostasomes to mouse spermatozoa and their displacement by monoclonal antibodies as revealed by free zone electrophoresis". Archives of Andrology 36 (2): 101–7. 1996. doi:10.3109/01485019608987085. PMID 8907670. 
  33. ↑ "Immunolocalization of prostasomes in the human prostate". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences 101 (2): 149–57. 1996. doi:10.3109/03009739609178919. PMID 8897705. 
  34. ↑ "Monoclonal antibodies against human prostasomes". The Prostate 35 (3): 178–84. May 1998. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19980515)35:3<178::AID-PROS3>3.0.CO;2-D. PMID 9582086. 
  35. ↑ "Prostasome to sperm transfer of CD13/aminopeptidase N (EC 3.4.11.2)". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects 1336 (3): 533–8. October 1997. doi:10.1016/s0304-4165(97)00071-8. PMID 9367181. 
  36. ↑ "Transfer of aminopeptidase activity from prostasomes to sperm". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects 1336 (2): 269–74. August 1997. doi:10.1016/S0304-4165(97)00036-6. PMID 9305799. 
  37. ↑ "Fusion of sperm with prostasomes: effects on membrane fluidity". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 343 (1): 6–12. July 1997. doi:10.1006/abbi.1997.9999. PMID 9210640. 
  38. ↑ "Transfer of CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV (E.C. 3.5.4.4) from prostasomes to sperm". FEBS Letters 410 (2–3): 343–6. June 1997. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(97)00655-8. PMID 9237659. 
  39. ↑ "Fusion of human sperm to prostasomes at acidic pH". The Journal of Membrane Biology 155 (1): 89–94. January 1997. doi:10.1007/s002329900160. PMID 9002427. 
  40. ↑ "Immunohistochemistry of prostasomes from human semen". The Prostate 30 (2): 98–106. February 1997. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19970201)30:2<98::AID-PROS5>3.0.CO;2-G. PMID 9051148. 
  41. ↑ "Prostasome-like particles in stallion semen". Biology of Reproduction 59 (2): 309–13. August 1998. doi:10.1095/biolreprod59.2.309. PMID 9687300. 
  42. ↑ "Occurrence of prostasome-like membrane vesicles in equine seminal plasma". Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 114 (2): 237–43. November 1998. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.1140237. PMID 10070353. 
  43. ↑ "Expression of prostasome-like granules by the prostate cancer cell lines PC3, Du145 and LnCaP grown in monolayer". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences 104 (3): 199–206. 1999. doi:10.3109/03009739909178963. PMID 10680953. 
  44. ↑ "Distribution of prostasomes in neoplastic epithelial prostate cells". The Prostate 39 (1): 36–40. April 1999. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19990401)39:1<36::AID-PROS6>3.0.CO;2-6. PMID 10221264. 
  45. ↑ "Antibacterial activity of human prostasomes". The Prostate 44 (4): 279–86. September 2000. doi:10.1002/1097-0045(20000901)44:4<279::AID-PROS4>3.0.CO;2-2. PMID 10951492. 
  46. ↑ "Autoantibodies to prostasomes as new markers for prostate cancer". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences 106 (1): 43–9. 2001. doi:10.3109/2000-1967-171. PMID 11817562. 
  47. ↑ "Proteomic analysis of human prostasomes". The Prostate 56 (2): 150–61. July 2003. doi:10.1002/pros.10255. PMID 12746840. 
  48. ↑ "Structural heterogeneity and protein composition of exosome-like vesicles (prostasomes) in human semen". The Prostate 69 (2): 159–67. February 2009. doi:10.1002/pros.20860. PMID 18819103. 
  49. ↑ "Prostasomes from four different species are able to produce extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP)". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects 1830 (10): 4604–10. October 2013. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.05.019. PMID 23707955. 
  50. ↑ "Does human semen contain a functional haemostatic system? A possible role for Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor in fertility through semen liquefaction". Thrombosis and Haemostasis 93 (5): 847–52. May 2005. doi:10.1160/TH04-09-0600. PMID 15886798. 
  51. ↑ "Prothrombotic effects of prostasomes isolated from prostatic cancer cell lines and seminal plasma". Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis 33 (1): 80–6. February 2007. doi:10.1055/s-2006-958466. PMID 17253194. 
  52. ↑ "Prothrombotic effect of prostasomes of metastatic cell and seminal origin". The Prostate 67 (4): 378–88. March 2007. doi:10.1002/pros.20497. PMID 17219380. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Human prostasomes contain chromosomal DNA". The Prostate 69 (7): 737–43. May 2009. doi:10.1002/pros.20921. PMID 19143024. 
  54. ↑ "Prostasomes are heterogeneous regarding size and appearance but affiliated to one DNA-containing exosome family". The Prostate 72 (16): 1736–45. December 2012. doi:10.1002/pros.22526. PMID 22539202. 
  55. ↑ "Prostasomal DNA characterization and transfer into human sperm". Molecular Reproduction and Development 78 (7): 467–76. July 2011. doi:10.1002/mrd.21327. PMID 21638509. 
  56. ↑ "Multiple recognition assay reveals prostasomes as promising plasma biomarkers for prostate cancer". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (21): 8809–14. May 2011. doi:10.1073/pnas.1019330108. PMID 21555566. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..108.8809T. 
  57. ↑ "Proteomic Profiling of Detergent Resistant Membranes (Lipid Rafts) of Prostasomes". Molecular & Cellular Proteomics 14 (11): 3015–22. November 2015. doi:10.1074/mcp.M114.047530. PMID 26272980. 



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