Astronomy:Balloon-borne telescope

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Skyhook balloon, launched September 1957 as part of Project Stratoscope, photographed the Sun in high resolution

A balloon-borne telescope is a type of airborne telescope, a sub-orbital astronomical telescope that is suspended below one or more stratospheric balloons, allowing it to be lifted above the lower, dense part of the Earth's atmosphere. This has the advantage of improving the resolution limit of the telescope at a much lower cost than for a space telescope. It also allows observation of frequency bands that are blocked by the atmosphere.[1]

History

Balloon-borne telescopes have been used for observation from the stratosphere since the Stratoscope I was launched in 1957.[2] A number of different instruments have since been carried aloft by balloons for observation in the infrared, microwave, X-ray and gamma ray bands. The BOOMERanG experiment, flown between 1997–2003,[3] and the MAXIMA, which made flights in 1998 and 1999,[4] were used to map the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.

Disadvantages

Balloon-borne telescopes have the disadvantage of relatively low altitude and a flight time of only a few days. However, their maximum altitude of about 50 km is much higher than the limiting altitude of aircraft-borne telescopes such as the Kuiper Airborne Observatory and Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, which have a limiting altitude of 15 km.[1][5] A few balloon-borne telescopes have crash landed, resulting in damage to, or destruction of the telescope.

The balloon obscures the zenith from the telescope, but a very long suspension can reduce this to a range of 2°. The telescope must be isolated from the induced motion of the stratospheric winds as well as the slow rotation and pendulum motion of the balloon. The azimuth stability can be maintained by a magnetometer, plus a gyroscope or star tracker for shorter term corrections. A three axis mount gives the best control over the tube motion, consisting of an azimuth, elevation and cross-elevation axis.[5]

Missions

Name Active Description and purpose
Stratoscope I 1957–59 12-inch telescope attached to a polyethylene balloon.[2] This was the first balloon-borne astronomical telescope.[6] It took photographic images of the sun, showing granulation features. In 1959 it was flown again, this time with a television transmitter.[2]
Stratoscope II 1963–71 36-inch telescope with a tandem balloon system.[2]
THISBE 1973–76 Infrared telescope used for observations of extended sources, including OH airglow, the zodiacal light, and the central galaxy region.[7]
HIREGS 1991–98 High-resolution spectrometer for examining gamma ray and hard X-ray emissions from solar flares and galactic sources. It used an array of liquid nitrogen-cooled germanium detectors.[8]
BOOMERanG experiment 1997–2003 Microwave telescope with cryogenic detectors that was carried on long-duration flights over the antarctic. It was used to map the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR).[3]
MAXIMA 1998–99 Microwave telescope with a cryogenic receiver that was used to measure the CMBR.[4]
HERO 2001–10 Hard X-ray telescope that flew successfully beginning in 2001 but crashed in 2010, destroying the telescope.[9]
BLAST 2003– Submillimetre telescope with a 2 m aperture. It was destroyed during the third flight, but was rebuilt and completed a fourth flight in 2010.[10]
InFOCμS 2004– Hard X-ray telescope with a 49 cm2 collecting area.[11]
HEFT 2005 Hard X-ray telescope that uses grazing-incidence optics.[12]
Sunrise 2009– 1 m ultraviolet telescope with image stabilization and adaptive optics for observing the Sun.[13]
PoGOLite 2011– Telescope for polarised hard X-rays and soft gamma-rays.[14]
Spider 2015– Submillimeter telescope searching for primordial gravitational waves.[15]
SuperBIT 2015– Near-IR to Near-UV, wide-field, optically diffraction-limited telescope mapping out dark matter distribution in galaxy clusters through weak lensing.[16]

Future missions

NASA’s ASTHROS balloon observatory

NASA is planning to launch the largest ever balloon observatory on December 1, 2024 with a 400 foot balloon and 2.5 metre far-infrared telescope.[17] ASTHROS (Astrophysics Stratospheric Telescope for High Spectral Resolution Observations at Submillimeter-wavelengths) will launch from the Antarctic and is envisioned to last for four weeks. Its primary mirror consists of nine panels and is 8.2-foot (2.5-meter) in diameter. Optics is produced by Italian manufacturer Media Lario. The balloon may reach an altitude of 130,000 feet (40 kilometers).[18]

When fully inflated, the 40-million-cubic-feet helium balloon will be about 400 feet (150 meters) wide. The current best estimate for the weight of the observatory, including the gondola, solar panels, antenna, scientific instrument and communication systems, is about 5,500 pounds (2,500 kilograms). The telescope's detectors must be cooled down to 4 Kelvin using a cryocooler powered by electricity from its solar panels. One of ASTHROS' main science goals is to provide new information about stellar feedback in the Milky Way and other galaxies, a process in which stars either accelerate or decelerate the formation of new stars in their galaxy. ASTHROS will be the first mission to conduct high spectral resolution spectrometry in a few specific wavelengths of light, and identify two specific nitrogen ions that are formed by the processes that drive stellar feedback. As a target of opportunity, ASTHROS will observe TW Hydrae.[19]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kitchin, Christopher R. (2003). Astrophysical techniques (4th ed.). CRC Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-7503-0946-6. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Kidd, Stephen (September 17, 1964). "Astronomical ballooning: the Stratoscope program". New Scientist 23 (409): 702–704. https://books.google.com/books?id=3qpBF3BjFE4C&pg=PA702. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Masi, S. (2002). "The BOOMERanG experiment and the curvature of the universe". Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics 48 (1): 243–261. doi:10.1016/S0146-6410(02)00131-X. Bibcode: 2002PrPNP..48..243M. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Rabii, B. (July 2006). "MAXIMA: A balloon-borne cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment". Review of Scientific Instruments 77 (7): 071101. doi:10.1063/1.2219723. Bibcode: 2006RScI...77g1101R. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Cheng, Jingquan (2009). The principles of astronomical telescope design. Astrophysics and space science library. 360. Springer. pp. 509–510. ISBN 978-0-387-88790-6. 
  6. ↑ Zimmerman, Robert (2010). The universe in a mirror: the saga of the Hubble Telescope and the visionaries who built it. Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-691-14635-5. 
  7. ↑ Hofmann, W.; Lemke, D.; Thum, C. (May 1977). "Surface brightness of the central region of the Milky Way at 2.4 and 3.4 microns". Astronomy and Astrophysics 57 (1–2): 111–114. Bibcode: 1977A&A....57..111H. 
  8. ↑ Boggs, S. E. (October 2002). "Balloon flight test of pulse shape discrimination (PSD) electronics and background model performance on the HIREGS payload". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A 491 (3): 390–401. doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(02)01228-7. Bibcode: 2002NIMPA.491..390B. 
  9. ↑ Malik, Tariq (April 29, 2010). "Huge NASA Science Balloon Crashes in Australian Outback". space.com. http://www.space.com/8311-huge-nasa-science-balloon-crashes-australian-outback.html. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 
  10. ↑ Devlin, Mark. "Balloon-borne Large-Aperture Submillimeter Telescope: home page". blastexperiment. http://blastexperiment.info/. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 
  11. ↑ Tueller, J. (2005). "InFOCμS hard X-ray imaging telescope". Experimental Astronomy 20 (1–3): 121–129. doi:10.1007/s10686-006-9028-3. Bibcode: 2005ExA....20..121T. https://zenodo.org/record/1232802. 
  12. ↑ Chen, C. M. Hubert (September 2006). "In-flight Performance of the Balloon-borne High Energy Focusing Telescope". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 38: 383. Bibcode: 2006HEAD....9.1812C. 
  13. ↑ Schmidt, W. (June 2010). "SUNRISE Impressions from a successful science flight". Astronomische Nachrichten 331 (6): 601. doi:10.1002/asna.201011383. Bibcode: 2010AN....331..601S. 
  14. ↑ "PoGOLite: home page". Archived from the original on 2014-04-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20140420201931/http://www.particle.kth.se/pogolite/. Retrieved 2015-06-11. 
  15. ↑ Crill, B.P.; Ade, P.A.R; Battistelli, E.S. (2008). "SPIDER: a balloon-borne large-scale CMB polarimeter". Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2008: Optical, Infrared, and Millimeter (SPIE) 7010: 70102P. doi:10.1117/12.787446. Bibcode: 2008SPIE.7010E..2PC. 
  16. ↑ Romualdez, L. Javier; Benton, Steven J.; Brown, Anthony M.; Clark, Paul; Damaren, Christopher J.; Eifler, Tim; Fraisse, Aurelien A.; Galloway, Mathew N. et al. (2020-03-01). "Robust diffraction-limited NIR-to-NUV wide-field imaging from stratospheric balloon-borne platforms -- SuperBIT science telescope commissioning flight & performance". Review of Scientific Instruments 91 (3): 034501. doi:10.1063/1.5139711. ISSN 0034-6748. PMID 32259997. 
  17. ↑ "NASA Mission Will Study the Cosmos With a Stratospheric Balloon". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 23 July 2020. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7712. Retrieved 26 July 2020. 
  18. ↑ "NASA’s Stratospheric Balloon Mission Gets Telescope With Giant Mirror - NASA". NASA. 29 June 2022. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/scientific-balloons/asthros/nasas-stratospheric-balloon-mission-gets-telescope-with-giant-mirror/.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  19. ↑ "ASTHROS - NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory". https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/asthros.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.



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