Biology:Amianthium

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Amianthium is a genus of perennial monocot plants found in eastern North America.[1] The genus contains only one species, known as Amianthium muscitoxicum.[2] Its common names include "fly poison" and "stagger grass".[3] The species name muscitoxicum comes from a direct Latin translation of "fly poison": muscae = flies, toxicum = poison.[4] The entire plant is poisonous to an array of species, including humans, and the bulb is particularly toxic.[3][5] A. muscitoxicum was first recorded by Thomas Walter in his work Flora Caroliniana in 1788.[6]

Description

File:Fly Poison Inflorescence (51833048912).jpg
The indeterminate, bracteate raceme of A. muscitoxicum.

Amianthium muscitoxicum blooms between May and July with small white flowers that turn greenish or purplish with age.[4] Its flowers form an indeterminate bracteate raceme inflorescence.[7] It blooms from the bottom of the inflorescence upwards, eventually forming small, bright orange fruits in the late summer or fall.[8]

A. muscitoxicum can grow 1–4 feet tall.[4] Its main leaves are at the base of the plant; they are thin and can grow more than 12in long.[4] It also has leaves along the length of the stem, but they are very reduced.[4]

1913 Illustration of Amianthium muscitoxicum [Image 1]

Habitat and Distribution

Amianthium muscitoxicum is native to the eastern United States from New York to Florida and can be found as far west as Missouri and Oklahoma.[1] Its native habitats include oak forests, bogs, low pinelands, savannas, meadows, and sandhills.[3]

It does best in partial shade, with 1–2 hours of direct sunlight.[8] Companion plants include: longleaf pine, willow oak, mountain laurel, blueberries, galax, heartleaf, foamflowers, smilacina, Soloman's seal, dwarf iris, jack-in-the-pulpit, black cohosh, grasses.[8]

Mating and Sexual Systems

Amianthium muscitoxicum is self-incompatible and is mainly pollinated by five species of beetle, predominantly Strangalepta abbreviata.[9][10] These beetles are rewarded by nectar produced within each flower, with beetles spending significantly more time at flowers with higher nectar volumes.[10]

A. muscitoxicum exhibits partial dichogamy, meaning there is a separation in the timing of male and female reproductive function.[7] Specifically, it is protandrous, which means that the pollen is produced before the stigma becomes receptive to other pollen.[7] Nectar production varies with the sexual phase of each flower, accumulating through the lifecycle and peaking just after anthesis, when the flower blooms and is functional.[10] This species has a high potential for multiple mating, which generally increases fitness due to greater genetic diversity of seeds and a higher likelihood of a compatible cross.[11]

Toxicity

Amianthium muscitoxicum contains toxic alkaloids, and as such, is highly poisonous when ingested by livestock, humans and other animals.[3] Four toxic alkaloids have been isolated from the plant: jervine, two unknown ester alkaloids, and amianthine.[12] These alkaloids are found in all parts of the plant, with especially high concentration in the bulbs.[5]

Historical experiments tested the toxicity on sheep and cattle.[13] Observed symptoms included cessation of eating and excess production of saliva, nausea followed by vomiting, rapid pulse, rapid and irregular respiration, weakness, and difficulty walking.[13] When fatal, death occurred in about an hour.[13] This is the origin for "stagger grass" as a common name for this plant.[3]

Uses

Amianthium muscitoxicum's common name "fly poison," comes from its use by early colonists as a way to control flies.[8] The bulbs can be ground down and mixed with something sweet, such as molasses or honey, to attract flies.[13] When flies drink it, they become unstable and have difficulty moving.[13] After 24 hours or so, if the flies have not been removed, the poison will wear and off and they are seemingly fine.[13]

Classification

Amianthium muscitoxicum is a member of the family Melanthiaceae and the tribe Melanthieae.[14] Melanthieae contains seven genera, including Melanthium and Amianthium.[2] A. muscitoxicum, sometimes spelled muscaetoxicum,[4] was first classified in the genus Melanthium by Thomas Walter in 1788.[6] More recent molecular and genetic research has firmly classified it in the genus Amianthium, which is characterized by a unique alkaloid that it contains: amianthine.[15] A. muscitoxicum is the only species within this genus.[2] (See also Phylogeny of Melanthieae.)

Amianthium species which have been placed in other genera include:[14]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "USDA Plants Database". https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/AMMU. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Williams, Norris H.; Whitten, W. Mark; Judd, Walter S. (2001). "Generic circumscription and relationships in the tribe Melanthieae (Liliales, Melanthiaceae), with emphasis on Zigadenus: evidence from ITS and trnL-F sequence data" (in en). American Journal of Botany 88 (9): 1657–1669. doi:10.2307/3558411. ISSN 1537-2197. PMID 21669700. Bibcode: 2001AmJB...88.1657Z. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2307/3558411. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 "Amianthium muscitoxicum (Crow Poison, Fly Poison, Stagger Grass) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox". https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/amianthium-muscitoxicum/. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Adkins, Leonard M.; Cook, Joe; Sheppard, Monica (2017). Wildflowers of the Appalachian Trail (Third ed.). Birmingham, AL : Harpers Ferry, WV: Menasha Ridge Press; Appalachian Trail Conservancy. ISBN 978-1-63404-090-7. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=AMMU. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Walter, Thomas; Walter, Thomas; Fraser, J.; Wenman, Joseph (1788). Flora caroliniana: secundum systema vegetabilium perillustris Linnaei digesta; characteres essentiales naturalesve et differentias veras exhibens; cum emendationibus numerosis: descriptionum antea evulgatarum: adumbrationes stirpium plus mille continens: necnon, generibus novis non paucis, speciebus plurimis novisq. ornata. Londini: Sumptibus J. Fraser Prostant venales apud J. Wenman, in Vico vulgo dicto Fleet-street. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38202. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Palmer, Mary; Travis, Joseph; Antonovics, Janis (1989-02-01). "Temporal mechanisms influencing gender expression and pollen flow within a self-incompatible perennial, Amianthium muscaetoxicum (Liliaceae)" (in en). Oecologia 78 (2): 231–236. doi:10.1007/BF00377160. ISSN 1432-1939. PMID 28312363. Bibcode: 1989Oecol..78..231P. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Wasowski, Sally; Wasowski, Andy (2020). Gardening with native plants of the South (Revised ed.). Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1-4930-3880-0. 
  9. ↑ Travis, Joseph (August 1984). "Breeding System, Pollination, and Pollinator Limitation in a Perennial Herb, Amianthium Muscaetoxicum (Liliaceae)" (in en). American Journal of Botany 71 (7): 941–947. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1984.tb14160.x. ISSN 0002-9122. Bibcode: 1984AmJB...71..941T. https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1984.tb14160.x. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 McPeek, Sarah J.; Erwin, Connor L.; Brodie III, Edmund D. (2025). "Patterns of within- and among-plant variation in nectar production in the beetle-pollinated Amianthium muscaetoxicum" (in en). American Journal of Botany 112 (7). doi:10.1002/ajb2.70069. ISSN 1537-2197. PMID 40624804. PMC 12281266. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajb2.70069. 
  11. ↑ Palmer, Mary; Travis, Joseph; Antonovics, Janis (October 1988). "Seasonal pollen flow and progeny diversity in Amianthium muscaetoxicum: ecological potential for multiple mating in a self-incompatible, hermaphroditic perennial" (in en). Oecologia 77 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1007/BF00380919. ISSN 0029-8549. PMID 28312309. Bibcode: 1988Oecol..77...19P. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00380919. 
  12. ↑ Neuss, Norbert (June 1953). "A New Alkaloid from Amianthium Muscaetoxicum Gray" (in en). Journal of the American Chemical Society 75 (11): 2772–2773. doi:10.1021/ja01107a513. ISSN 0002-7863. Bibcode: 1953JAChS..75.2772N. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01107a513. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Marsh, C. Dwight; Clawson, A. B.; Marsh, Hadleigh (1918). Stagger grass (Chrosperma muscaetoxicum) as a poisonous plant. Washington, D.C: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.64409. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/64409. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "WCSP". http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/.  (search on Amianthium)
  15. ↑ Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Judd, Walter S. (Summer 2002). "Resurrection of Segregates of the Polyphyletic Genus Zigadenus s.l. (Liliales: Melanthiaceae) and Resulting New Combinations". Novon 12 (2): 299. doi:10.2307/3392971. Bibcode: 2002Novon..12..299Z. 

Citations

  1. ↑ Illustration from Britton & Brown's An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. (1913) as Chrosperma muscitoxicum

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