Biology:Carcinus maenas

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Short description: Species of invasive crab

Green shore crab
Carcinus maenas.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Malacostraca
Order: Decapoda
Suborder: Pleocyemata
Infraorder: Brachyura
Family: Carcinidae
Genus: Carcinus
Species:
C. maenas
Binomial name
Carcinus maenas
A large male C. maenas, on top of a 5-gallon bucket for scale.
A large male C. maenas, on top of a 5-gallon bucket for scale
Two female C. maenas.
Two female C. maenas. Despite the possibly misleading common name, European green crabs are not only green. The underside of their carapace can range from green to yellow to orange to red. The best way to identify them is through other characteristics, such as the five spines on either side of their eyes, with three in between them.

Carcinus maenas is a common littoral crab. It is known by different names around the world. In the British Isles, it is generally referred to as the shore crab, or green shore crab. In North America and South Africa , it bears the name European green crab.

C. maenas is a widespread invasive species, listed among the 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species.[2] It is native to the north-east Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea, but has colonised similar habitats in Australia, South Africa, South America and both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. It grows to a carapace width of 90 mm (3 1⁄2 in), and feeds on a variety of mollusks, worms, and small crustaceans, affecting a number of fisheries. Its successful dispersal has occurred by a variety of mechanisms, such as on ships' hulls, sea planes, packing materials, and bivalves moved for aquaculture. [citation needed]

Description

A young C. maenas showing the common green colour

C. maenas has a carapace up to 60 mm (2.4 in) long and 90 mm (3.5 in) wide,[3] but can be larger outside its native range, reaching 100 mm (3.9 in) wide in British Columbia.[4] The carapace has five short teeth along the rim behind each eye, and three undulations between the eyes. The undulations, which protrude beyond the eyes, are the simplest means of distinguishing C. maenas from the closely related C. aestuarii, which can also be an invasive species. In C. aestuarii, the carapace lacks any bumps and extends forward beyond the eyes. Another characteristic for distinguishing the two species is the form of the first and second pleopods (collectively the gonopods), which are straight and parallel in C. aestuarii, but curve outwards in C. maenas.[3]

The colour of C. maenas varies greatly, from green to brown, grey, or red. This variation has a genetic component, but is largely due to local environmental factors.[5] In particular, individuals which delay moulting become red-coloured rather than green. Red individuals are stronger and more aggressive, but are less tolerant of environmental stresses, such as low salinity or hypoxia.[6] Juvenile crabs on average display greater patterning than adults.[7]

Native and introduced range

Approximate distribution of C. maenas
     (blue) native range ● single sightings which did not result in an invasion      (red) introduced or invasive range      (green) potential invasive range

C. maenas is native to European and North African coasts as far as the Baltic Sea in the east, and Iceland and Central Norway in the north, and is one of the most common crabs throughout much of its range. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is replaced by the closely related species C. aestuarii. dkfakl; C. maenas was first observed on the east coast of North America in Massachusetts in 1817, and may now be found from South Carolina northwards;[8] by 2007, this species had extended its range northwards to Placentia Bay, Newfoundland.[9] In 1989, the species was found in San Francisco Bay, California , on the Pacific Coast of the United States. Until 1993, it was not able to extend its range, but reached Oregon in 1997, Washington (state) in 1998, and British Columbia in 1999,[10][11] thus extending its range by 750 km (470 mi) in 10 years.[12] (As of December 2020) they were just south of Alaska, and were expected to enter Alaska next.[13] By 2003, C. maenas had extended to South America with specimens discovered in Patagonia.[14]

In Australia, C. maenas was first reported "in the late 1800s"[15] in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, although the species was probably introduced as early as the 1850s.[16] It has since spread along the south-eastern and south-western seaboards, reaching New South Wales in 1971, South Australia in 1976 and Tasmania in 1993. One specimen was found in Western Australia in 1965, but no further discoveries have been reported in the area since.[15]

C. maenas first reached South Africa in 1983, in the Table Docks area near Cape Town.[17] Since then, it has spread at least as far as Saldanha Bay in the north and Camps Bay in the south, over 100 km (62 mi) apart.

Appearances of C. maenas have been recorded in Brazil , Panama, Hawaii, Madagascar , the Red Sea, Pakistan , Sri Lanka, and Myanmar; however, these have not resulted in invasions, but remain isolated findings. Japan has been invaded by a related crab, either C. aestuarii or a hybrid of C. aestuarii and C. maenas.[18]

Based on the ecological conditions, C. maenas could eventually extend its range to colonise the Pacific Coast of North America from Baja California to Alaska.[10] Similar ecological conditions are to be found on many of the world's coasts, with the only large potential area not to have been invaded yet being New Zealand; the New Zealand government has taken action, including the release of a Marine Pest Guide[19] in an effort to prevent colonisation by C. maenas.

In 2019 C. maenas was first found in Lummi Bay, Lummi Indian Reservation, Whatcom County, Washington, United States .[20] The Nation began trapping and removing the crabs in an effort to get rid of them.[20] Then in 2020 hundreds were found in traps, and it became clear that more intensive trapping will be necessary to keep their numbers down.[20] Eradication will not be possible.[20]

Over a 19-year study concluding in 2020, Oregon's Coos Bay was found to have an established and increasing population.[21][22]

While in 2020 less than 3,000 were trapped, trapping yielded >79,000 in 2021. This led the Lummi Indian Business Council to declare a disaster in November 2021 and the Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife to request emergency funding from the Governor.[23]

Ecology

A female C. maenas carrying fertilised eggs

C. maenas can live in all types of protected and semiprotected marine and estuarine habitats, including those with mud, sand, or rock substrates, submerged aquatic vegetation, and emergent marsh, although soft bottoms are preferred. C. maenas is euryhaline, meaning that it can tolerate a wide range of salinities (from 4 to 52 ‰), and survive in temperatures of 0 to 30 °C (32 to 86 °F).[24] The wide salinity range allows C. maenas to survive in the lower salinities found in estuaries, and the wide temperature range allows it to survive in extremely cold climates beneath the ice in winter. A molecular biological study using the COI gene found genetic differentiation between the North Sea and the Bay of Biscay, and even more strongly between the populations in Iceland and the Faroe Islands and those elsewhere. This suggests that C. maenas is unable to cross deeper water.[25]

Females can produce up to 185,000 eggs, and larvae develop offshore in several stages before their final moult to juvenile crabs in the intertidal zone.[26] Young crabs live among seaweeds and seagrasses, such as Posidonia oceanica, until they reach adulthood.[27]

Argopecten irradians, a scallop which has been affected by the introduction of C. maenas

C. maenas has the ability to disperse by a variety of mechanisms,[26] including ballast water, ships' hulls, packing materials (seaweeds) used to ship live marine organisms, bivalves moved for aquaculture, rafting, migration of crab larvae on ocean currents, and the movement of submerged aquatic vegetation for coastal zone management initiatives. C. maenas dispersed in Australia mainly by rare long-distance events, possibly caused by human actions.[15]

C. maenas is a predator, feeding on many organisms, particularly bivalve molluscs (such as clams – up to 40 1⁄2 inch (13 mm) clams per day,[28] oysters,[28] and mussels[28]), polychaetes, and small crustaceans[29][30] – including other crabs up to their own size.[28] They are primarily diurnal, although activity also depends on the tide, and crabs can be active at any time of day.[31] In California , preferential predation of C. maenas on native clams (Nutricola spp.) resulted in the decline of the native clams and an increase of a previously introduced clam (the amethyst gem clam, Gemma gemma),[32] although C. maenas also voraciously preys on introduced clams such as Potamocorbula amurensis.[33] The soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) is a preferred prey species of C. maenas.[30] Consequently, it has been implicated in the destruction of the soft-shell clam fisheries on the east coast of the United States and Canada,[28] and the reduction of populations of other commercially important bivalves (such as scallops, Argopecten irradians, and northern quahogs, Mercenaria mercenaria).[26] The prey of C. maenas includes the young of bivalves[34] and fish, although the effect of its predation on winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus is minimal.[35] C. maenas can, however, have substantial negative impacts on local commercial and recreational fisheries,[28] by preying on the young of species, such as oysters (adults' shells are too tough for C. maenas to crack)[28] and the Dungeness crab,[28] or competing with them for resources[36] Colder water temperatures reduce overall feeding rates of C. maenas.[30] and eating the Zostera marina that Dungeness and juvenile salmon depend upon for habitat.[28]

To protect itself against predators, C. maenas uses different camouflage strategies depending on their habitat: crabs in mudflats try to resemble their surroundings with colours similar to the mud while crabs in rock pool use disruptive coloration.[37]

Control

Cancer productus limits the spread of C. maenas in parts of North America.

Due to its potentially harmful effects on ecosystems, various efforts have been made to control introduced populations of C. maenas around the world. In Edgartown, Massachusetts, a bounty was levied in 1995 for catching C. maenas, to protect local shellfish, and 10 tons were caught.[38]

Some evidence shows that the native blue crab in eastern North America, Callinectes sapidus, is able to control populations of C. maenas; numbers of the two species are negatively correlated, and C. maenas is not found in the Chesapeake Bay, where C. sapidus is most frequent.[39] On the west coast of North America, C. maenas appears to be limited to upper estuarine habitats, in part because of predation by native rock crabs (Romaleon antennarium and Cancer productus) and competition for shelter with a native shore crab, Hemigrapsus oregonensis.[40] Host specificity testing has recently been conducted on Sacculina carcini, a parasitic barnacle, as a potential biological control agent of C. maenas.[41] In the laboratory, Sacculina settled on, infected, and killed native California crabs, including the Dungeness crab, Metacarcinus magister (formerly Cancer magister), and the shore crabs Hemigrapsus nudus, Hemigrapsus oregonensis and Pachygrapsus crassipes. Dungeness crabs were the most vulnerable of the tested native species to settlement and infection by the parasite. Although Sacculina did not mature in any of the native crabs, developing reproductive sacs were observed inside a few M. magister and H. oregonensis crabs. Any potential benefits of using Sacculina to control C. maenas on the west coast of North America would need to be weighed against these potential nontarget impacts.[41]

Use as a food

Buttered green crab legs

In its native range, European green crab is mostly used as an ingredient in soups and sauces.[42] However, the closely related Mediterranean green crab (C. aestuarii) has a thriving culinary market in Italy where fishermen known as moecante cultivate soft-shell green crabs (moeche in Venetian, moleche in Italian)[43] and sell hard-shell crabs for their roe (masinette).[44] Several groups in New England have successfully adapted these methods to produce soft-shell green crabs from the invasive species.[45]

In New England where invasive green crab populations are high, various groups have looked into utilizing green crabs in cuisine.[45] In 2019, The Green Crab Cookbook was released and included recipes for soft-shell green crab, green crab roe, green crab stock, and green crab meat.[46] One of the book's co-authors went on to found Greencrab.org, an organization dedicated to developing culinary markets for the invasive green crab. In addition to partnering with local chefs and wholesalers for supply chain development and market studies, Greencrab.org has continued to develop green crab recipes and processing techniques.[47]

Researchers at the University of Maine have actively been developing value-added green crab products, with the goals of driving business interest, stimulating a commercial green crab fishery, and alleviating predation effects.[48] Specifically, one study evaluated the consumer acceptability of empanadas (fried, stuffed pastries) which contained varying amounts of green crab mince meat.[49] The empanadas were rated between "like slightly" and "like moderately" for overall acceptability by a consumer panel (n=87). Furthermore, about two-thirds of the panelists would "probably" or "definitely" buy the empanadas if available locally. Additionally, the same researchers developed a patty product made from green crab mince meat using restructuring additives (transglutaminase, dried egg white, isolated soy protein).[50] Although a successful green crab patty was developed, the restructuring additives may have had greater functionality in a raw crab meat system, as opposed to the fully cooked mince that was used in the present study. The results from both studies are considered promising, especially considering that these were initial rounds of green crab product development.[citation needed]

In the past, Legal Sea Foods, an East Coast restaurant chain, experimented with green crabs, creating a green crab stock in their test kitchen during the winter of 2015.[51] In June 2022 Tamworth Distilling, a New Hampshire distillery, teamed up with the University of New Hampshire's NH Green Crab Project to develop House of Tamworth Crab Trapper, which is billed as being "made with a bourbon base steeped with a custom crab, corn and spice blend mixture".[52]

Fishery

A Bucket of Crabs

C. maenas is fished on a small scale in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, with about 1200 tonnes being caught annually, mostly in France and the United Kingdom. In the northwest Atlantic, C. maenas was the subject of fishery in the 1960s, and again since 1996, with up to 86 tonnes being caught annually.[53]

Taxonomic history

Carcinus maenas was first given a binomial name, Cancer maenas, by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.[54] An earlier description was published by Georg Eberhard Rumphius in his 1705 work De Amboinsche Rariteitkamer, calling the species Cancer marinus sulcatus, but this antedates the starting point for zoological nomenclature.[54] A number of later synonyms have also been published:[54]

  • Monoculus taurus Slabber, 1778
  • Cancer granarius Herbst, 1783
  • Cancer viridis Herbst, 1783
  • Cancer pygmaeus Fabricius, 1787
  • Cancer rhomboidalis Montagu, 1804
  • Cancer granulatus Nicholls, 1943
  • Megalopa montagui Leach, 1817
  • Portunus menoides Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1817
  • Portunus carcinoides Kinahan, 1857

The lectotype chosen for the species came from Marstrand, Sweden, but it is assumed to have been lost.[54] In 1814, writing for The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, William Elford Leach erected a new genus, Carcinus to hold this species alone (making it the type species of the genus, by monotypy).[54] In 1847, Nardo described a distinct subspecies occurring in the Mediterranean Sea, which is now recognised as a distinct species, Carcinus aestuarii.[1]

Neurochemistry

Particular amino acids in particular signaling peptides of C. maenas are protonated by pH changes currently ((As of 2020)) occurring or likely to be reached in the course of future climate change. This significantly alters peptide structure and peptide-mediated behaviours (brood care and egg ventilation requiring ~10x the normal peptide concentration). The requirement of higher concentration may be due to lowered binding affinity in the sensory epithelium. This effect is very reversible.[55]

Physiochemistry

The usual decrease in extracellular chloride due to increased extracellular bicarbonate is avoided if C. maenas is first acclimated to the increased pCO2. While this may be due to the already-high extracellular chloride levels in this species, it may instead be because moderately higher pCO2 increases these levels through some unrelated mechanism.[55]

Changes in pH due to sodium and magnesium can alter extracellular iron concentrations.[55]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Peter K. L. Ng; Danièle Guinot; Peter J. F. Davie (2008). "Systema Brachyurorum: Part I. An annotated checklist of extant Brachyuran crabs of the world". Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 17: 1–286. http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s17/s17rbz.pdf. 
  2. ↑ "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". Invasive Species Specialist Group. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/100_worst.php. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 S. B. Yamada; L. Hauck (2001). "Field identification of the European green crab species: Carcinus maenas and Carcinus aestuarii". Journal of Shellfish Research 20 (3): 905–909. http://www.sgnis.org/publicat/papers/yamahauc.pdf. 
  4. ↑ Iain J. McGaw; Timothy C. Edgell; Michel J. Kaiser (2011). "Population demographics of native and newly invasive populations of the green crab Carcinus maenas". Marine Ecology Progress Series 430: 235–240. doi:10.3354/meps09037. Bibcode: 2011MEPS..430..235M. https://www.int-res.com/articles/theme/m430p235.pdf. Retrieved 2020-01-27. 
  5. ↑ J. V. Brian; T. Fernandes; R. J. Ladle; P. A. Todd (2005). "Patterns of morphological and genetic variability in UK populations of the shore crab, Carcinus maenas Linnaeus, 1758 (Crustacea : Decapoda : Brachyura)". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 329 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2005.08.002. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/1167/3/Brian%2bet%2bal.%2bJEMBE%2brevised.pdf. Retrieved 2019-09-24. 
  6. ↑ A. McKnight; L. M. Mathres; R. Avery; K. T. Lee (2000). "Distribution is correlated with color phase in green crabs, Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1758) in southern New England". Crustaceana 73 (6): 763–768. doi:10.1163/156854000504787. 
  7. ↑ Stevens, Martin; Lown, Alice E.; Wood, Louisa E. (31 December 2014). "Camouflage and Individual Variation in Shore Crabs (Carcinus maenas) from Different Habitats". PLOS ONE (Public Library of Science) 9 (12): e115586. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115586. PMID 25551233. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...9k5586S. open access
  8. ↑ "The Rhode Island Marine & Estuarine Invasive Species Site". http://www.rimeis.org/species/carcinus.html. 
  9. ↑ "A biological synopsis of the European green crab, Carcinus maenas". Canadian Manuscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 2818. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2007. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/330845.pdf. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council (2004). "Non-indigenous aquatic species of concern for Alaska. Fact Sheet 1". http://www.pwsrcac.org/docs/d0015300.pdf. 
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  12. ↑ Green Crab Control Committee (November 13, 2002). "Management plan for European Green Crab". United States Federal Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force. http://www.anstaskforce.gov/GreenCrabManagementPlan.pdf. 
  13. ↑ Viechnicki, Joe (2020-12-31). "Scientists look for invasive crab's 'fingerprint' in Alaska waters". http://www.knba.org/post/scientists-look-invasive-crabs-fingerprint-alaska-waters. 
  14. ↑ Fernando J. Hidalgo, Pedro J. Barón & José María (Lobo) Orensanz (2005). "A prediction come true: the green crab invades the Patagonian coast". Biological Invasions 7 (3): 547–552. doi:10.1007/s10530-004-5452-3. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 R. Thresher; C. Proctor; G. Ruiz; R. Gurney; C. MacKinnon; W. Walton; L. Rodriguez; N. Bax (2003). "Invasion dynamics of the European shore crab, Carcinus maenas, in Australia". Marine Biology 142 (5): 867–876. doi:10.1007/s00227-003-1011-1. http://serc.si.edu/labs/marine_invasions/publications/PDF/Thresher_et_al_2003.pdf. 
  16. ↑ Geoffrey M. Clarke; Suellen Grosse; Marcus Matthews; Peter C. Catling; Brendon Baker; Chad L. Hewitt; Diane Crowther; Stephen R. Saddlier (2000). State of the Environment Indicators for Exotic Environmental Pest Species. Australia: State of the Environment Technical Paper Series. Canberra: Department of the Environment and Heritage. http://www.environment.gov.au/archive/biodiversity/invasive/publications/pests/index.html. Retrieved 2013-12-09. 
  17. ↑ P. J. Le Roux; G. M. Branch; M. A. P. Joska (1990). "On the distribution, diet, and possible impact of the invasive European shore crab Carcinus maenas (L.) along the South African coast". South African Journal of Marine Science 9 (1): 85–93. doi:10.2989/025776190784378835. 
  18. ↑ T. J. Carlton; A. N. Cohen (2003). "Episodic global dispersal in shallow water marine organisms: the case history of the European shore crabs Carcinus maenas and C. aestuarii". Journal of Biogeography 30 (12): 1809–1820. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2003.00962.x. 
  19. ↑ "Marine Pest Guide". Biosecurity New Zealand. June 2006. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests/european-shore-crab/european-shore-crab-guide.pdf. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 "Hundreds more invasive European green crab found in Lummi Bay". 2020-10-26. http://nwtreatytribes.org/hundreds-more-invasive-european-green-crab-found-in-lummi-bay/. 
  21. ↑ "Increase in invasive European green crabs in Oregon's Coos Bay estuary, scientists report". 2020-12-21. http://kcby.com/news/local/increase-in-invasive-european-green-crabs-in-oregons-coos-bay-estuary-scientists-report. 
  22. ↑ Carroll, Scott (2020-12-29). "Invasive green crabs threaten Dungeness in Coos Bay estuary". http://www.oregonlive.com/environment/2020/12/invasive-green-crabs-threaten-dungeness-in-coos-bay-estuary.html. 
  23. ↑ "European Crab Emergency FY2022 Request". 2021-12-14. http://wdfw.wa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-12/european_crab_emergency_fy2022_request.pdf. 
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  25. ↑ Roman, Joe; Palumbi, Stephen R. (2004). "A global invader at home: population structure of the green crab, Carcinus maenas, in Europe". Molecular Ecology 13 (10): 2891–2898. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02255.x. PMID 15367106. http://palumbi.stanford.edu/manuscripts/Roman%20and%20Palumbi%202004.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-08. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Perry (2005). "USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database". https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?SpeciesID=190. 
  27. ↑ B. Bedini (2002). "Colour change and mimicry from juvenile to adult: Xantho poressa (Olivi, 1792) (Brachyura, Xanthidae) and Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Brachyura, Portunidae)". Crustaceana 75 (5): 703–710. doi:10.1163/156854002760202688. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 The Washington Department of Fish (2020-12-24). "Funding needed to keep aquatic invasive species out of Washington's waters". http://wdfw.medium.com/funding-needed-to-keep-aquatic-invasive-species-out-of-washingtons-waters-ca8ae02b3ab5. 
  29. ↑ "European green crab". Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/ans/identify/html/index.php?species=carcinus_maenas. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Matheson, Kyle; Mckenzie, Cynthia H. (September 2014). "Predation of sea scallops and other indigenous bivalves by invasive green crab, Carcinus maenas, from Newfoundland, Canada". Journal of Shellfish Research 33 (2): 495–501. doi:10.2983/035.033.0218. 
  31. ↑ M. Novak (2004). "Diurnal activity in a group of Maine decapods". Crustaceana 77 (5): 603–620. doi:10.1163/1568540041717975. 
  32. ↑ E. D. Grosholz (2005). "Recent biological invasion may hasten invasional meltdown by accelerating historical introductions". PNAS 102 (4): 1088–1091. doi:10.1073/pnas.0308547102. PMID 15657121. Bibcode: 2005PNAS..102.1088G. 
  33. ↑ Hedgpeth, J. W. (1993-07-02). "Foreign invaders". Science 261 (5117): 34–35. doi:10.1126/science.261.5117.34. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17750543. Bibcode: 1993Sci...261...34H. 
  34. ↑ Gilles Miron; Dominique Audet; Thomas Landry; Mikio Moriyasu (2005). "Predation potential of the invasive green crab (Carcinus maenas) and other common predators on commercial bivalve species found on Prince Edward island". Journal of Shellfish Research 24 (2): 579–586. doi:10.2983/0730-8000(2005)24[579:PPOTIG2.0.CO;2]. 
  35. ↑ D. L. Taylor (2005). "Predatory impact of the green crab (Carcinus maenas Linnaeus) on post-settlement winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus Walbaum) as revealed by immunological dietary analysis". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 324 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2005.04.014. 
  36. ↑ K. D. Lafferty; K. D. Kuris (1996). "Biological control of marine pests". Ecology (Ecological Society of America) 77 (7): 1989–2000. doi:10.2307/2265695. 
  37. ↑ "Crabs' camouflage tricks revealed" (in en). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190524081633.htm. 
  38. ↑ "The Web-Based Rapid Response Toolbox. Web publication". 2002. http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/nimpis/controlDetail.asp?ID=66. 
  39. ↑ C. E. DeRivera; G. M. Ruiz; A. H. Hines; P. Jivoff (2005). "Biotic resistance to invasion: Native predator limits abundance and distribution of an introduced crab". Ecology 86 (12): 3367–3376. doi:10.1890/05-0479. http://serc.si.edu/labs/marine_invasions/publications/PDF/DeRivera_et_al_%202005%20_Biotic_%20resistance_to_Green_Crab.pdf. 
  40. ↑ S. B. Yamada (2001). Global invader: the European Green Crab. Oregon Sea Grant. pp. 123. ISBN 1-881826-24-4. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 J. H. R. Goddard; M. E. Torchin; A. M. Kuris; K. D. Lafferty (2005). "Host specificity of Sacculina carcini, a potential biological control agent of introduced European green crab Carcinus maenas in California". Biological Invasions 7 (6): 895–912. doi:10.1007/s10530-003-2981-0. http://www.lifesci.ucsb.edu/eemb/labs/kuris/pubs/Goddard_etal_05_BI.pdf. Retrieved 2012-10-24. 
  42. ↑ "Shore crab bisque recipe – how to make a meal from your next crabbing trip". https://www.countryfile.com/how-to/shore-crab-bisque-recipe-how-to-make-a-meal-from-your-next-crabbing-trip/. 
  43. ↑ https://docs.google.com/document/d/1YPonzJxrLwYlJe92iOmDGOLvnsBjxQGmxei3Sgi3lAg/edit/ [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  44. ↑ Chase, Chris. "Green Crab Cookbook aims to develop culinary culture for invasive species". https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/environment-sustainability/green-crab-cookbook-aims-to-develop-culinary-culture-for-invasive-species. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Pyenson, Andrea. "Green Crabs are Wrecking Havoc on Our Coastal Habitat so Let's Eat Them". https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/food-dining/2019/06/25/green-crabs-are-wreaking-havoc-our-coastal-habitat-let-eat-them/yXu0pHffLodoFfrQwY3p2H/story.html. 
  46. ↑ Fabricant, Florence (22 April 2019). "A New Crab to Eat". https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/22/dining/green-crab-cookbook.html/. 
  47. ↑ "About Greencrab.org". https://www.greencrab.org. 
  48. ↑ "Food for thought: Green crab pastries pass UMaine taste test – UMaine News – University of Maine". 6 June 2017. https://umaine.edu/news/blog/2017/06/06/food-thought-green-crab-pastries-pass-umaine-taste-test/. 
  49. ↑ Galetti, Joseph A.; Calder, Beth L.; Skonberg, Denise I. (2017). "Mechanical Separation of Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) Meat and Consumer Acceptability of a Value-Added Food Product". Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology 26 (2): 172–180. doi:10.1080/10498850.2015.1126663. 
  50. ↑ Galetti, Joseph A. (2010). Mechanical Processing of European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas), the Development of a Value-Added Product and the Use of Restructuring Additives to Increase the Functional Properties of Green Crab Patties (Thesis). The University of Maine. Archived from the original on 2017-08-31. Retrieved 2017-06-21.
  51. ↑ Warner, Roger (2015-02-12). "Green crabs are multiplying. Should we eat the enemy?". The Boston Globe. https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2015/02/12/the-green-crab-problem-shall-eat-enemy/Ahtg6L87Gpxs0RMKntYAoN/story.html. 
  52. ↑ "New Hampshire distillery turns invasive crabs into whiskey" (in en-US). https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/other/new-hampshire-distillery-turns-invasive-crabs-into-whiskey/ar-AAYAAhV. 
  53. ↑ "FAO Nominal Catches: Carcinus maenas". FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org/report/FAO/FAOCatchList.cfm?&scientific=Carcinus%20maenas. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 "Species Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1758), European Shore Crab". Australian Faunal Directory. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. October 9, 2008. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/Carcinus_maenas. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 Melzner, Frank; Mark, Felix C.; Seibel, Brad A.; Tomanek, Lars (2020-01-03). "Ocean Acidification and Coastal Marine Invertebrates: Tracking CO2 Effects from Seawater to the Cell". Annual Review of Marine Science (Annual Reviews) 12 (1): 499–523. doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-010658. ISSN 1941-1405. PMID 31451083. Bibcode: 2020ARMS...12..499M. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q27779 entry



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