Biology:Plasmodiophore

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Short description: Group of fungi-like protists

Plasmodiophores
Plasmodiophoraceae in Aquatic Phycomycetes 1960.png
"Plasmodiophoraceae" 1960 illustration.
Scientific classification e
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Rhizaria
Phylum: Endomyxa
Class: Phytomyxea
Order: Plasmodiophorida
Cook, 1928
Family: Plasmodiophoridae
Zopf, 1884
Type genus
Plasmodiophora
M. Woronin, 1877
Genera
Synonyms
  • Plasmodiophoromycota Whittaker, 1969
  • Plasmodiophoromycetes K. Cejp, 1957
  • Plasmodiophorales Engl., 1892
  • Plasmodiophorales F.L. Stevens, 1913
  • Woroninales A.A. Jaczewski & P.A. Jaczewski, 1931
  • Plasmodiophoraceae Zopf ex Berl., 1888
  • Woroninaceae M. von Minden, 1911

The plasmodiophores[1] (also known as plasmophorids[2] or plasmodiophorids[3]) are a group of obligate endoparasitic protists belonging to the subphylum Endomyxa in Cercozoa.[4] Taxonomically, they are united under a single family Plasmodiophoridae, order Plasmodiophorida, sister to the phagomyxids.[5]

Ecology and pathology

Plasmodiophores are pathogenic for a wide range of organisms, but mainly green plants. The more commonly recognized are agents of plant diseases such as clubroot, powdery scab and crook root of watercress,[6] or vectors for viruses that infect beets, peanut, monocots and potatoes, such as the potato mop-top virus or the beet necrotic yellow vein virus.[7][8]

Taxonomy

History

The plasmodiophores have historically been regarded as Fungi. The first description of plasmodiophores as a taxonomic group was in 1885 by Zopf, who united two genera Plasmodiophora and Tetramyxa in a common family “Plasmodiophoreæ”, inside the group “Monadineæ”, as part of the division Myxomycetes. The family was renamed “Plasmodiophoraceae” in 1888 by Berlese.[9] In 1892, Engler placed the family in its own class “Plasmodiophorales”, later renamed “Plasmodiophoromycetes” to fit nomenclature standards.[10]

In 1969 Whittaker, in his five-kingdom system, elevated the group to a separate phylum “Plasmodiophoromycota”, acknowledging them as protists instead of fungi.[1]

In 1993 Cavalier-Smith included the plasmodiophores and their sister group Phagomyxida in their current class, Phytomyxea, as part of a polyphyletic phylum called Opalozoa, which at the time contained a diverse assemblage of unrelated zooflagellates, opalines and proteomyxids.[11] Eventually this phylum was discarded, and the name Opalozoa was modified to label a group inside the phylum Bigyra containing the opalines, bicosoecids and related organisms.[12]

Finally, after phylogenetic analyses, in 2002 Cavalier-Smith placed all Phytomyxea, including plasmodiophores, in the subphylum Endomyxa, inside the rhizarian phylum Cercozoa.[13][14]

Classification

The number of genera varies between sources. There are three accepted genera in the group according to the WoRMS register: Plasmodiophora, Spongospora and Tetramyxa.[15] Below is a complete list with genera that are not included in the register but appear in relevant sources:[3][16][17]

  • Ligniera R. Maire & A. Tison 1911 (=Anisomyxa Nemec 1913; Rhizomyxa Borzí 1884; Sorolpidium B. Nĕmec 1911)
  • Membranosorus C.H. Ostenfeld & H.E. Petersen 1930
  • Octomyxa J.N. Couch J. Leitner & A. Whiffen 1939
  • Polymyxa G.A. Ledingham 1939
  • Plasmodiophora Woronin 1877 (=Ostenfeldiella Ferdinandsen & Winge 1914)
  • Sorodiscus G. Lagerheim & Ø. Winge 1912
  • Sorosphaerula J. Schröt. 1886 (as Sorosphaera) nom. nov. Neuhauser & Kirchmair 2011[18] (=Tuburcinia E.M. Fries; Sorosporium F. Rudolphi 1829)
  • Spongospora Brunch. 1887 (=Clathrosorus C. Ferdinandson & Ö. Winge 1920)
  • Tetramyxa K. Goebel 1884 (=Molliardia R. Maire & A. Tison 1911; Thecaphora W. A. Setchell 1924)
  • Woronina Cornu 1872

These genera were once considered plasmodiophores[19] until they were excluded:[17]

  • Cystospora J.E. Elliott 1916 – possibly a physiological symptom.
  • Frankiella Maire & A. Tison 1909 – synonym of the bacteria Frankia.
  • Peltomyces L. Léger 1909 – excluded as unclassifiable.
  • Pyrrhosorus H. O. Juel 1901 – considered Labyrinthulida incertae sedis.[20]
  • Sporomyxa L. Léger 1907 – excluded as unclassifiable.
  • Trematophlyctis Patouillard 1918 – a chytrid fungus.[21]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science 163 (3863): 150–60. 10 January 1969. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760. 
  2. ↑ "The architecture of the Plasmodiophora brassicae nuclear and mitochondrial genomes". Sci Rep 9 (15753): 15753. 2019. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52274-7. PMID 31673019. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Cross-kingdom host shifts of phytomyxid parasites". BMC Evol Biol 14 (33): 33. 23 February 2014. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-33. PMID 24559266. 
  4. ↑ Irwin, Nicholas A.T.; Tikhonenkov, Denis V.; Hehenberger, Elisabeth; Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Burki, Fabien; Keeling, Patrick J. (2019-01-01). "Phylogenomics supports the monophyly of the Cercozoa" (in en). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 130: 416–423. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.09.004. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 30318266. 
  5. ↑ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Chao, Ema E.; Lewis, Rhodri (April 2018). "Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria". Protoplasma 255 (5): 1517–1574. doi:10.1007/s00709-018-1241-1. PMID 29666938. 
  6. ↑ Braselton JP (2001). "Plasmodiophoromycota". The Mycota. VII: Systematics and Evolution Part A. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 81–91. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10376-0_4. ISBN 978-3-662-10376-0. 
  7. ↑ "Not in your usual Top 10: protists that infect plants and algae". Mol Plant Pathol 19 (4): 1029–1044. April 2018. doi:10.1111/mpp.12580. PMID 29024322. 
  8. ↑ Neuhauser, Sigrid; Kirchmair, Martin; Gleason, Frank H. (28 April 2011). "Ecological roles of the parasitic phytomyxids (plasmodiophorids) in marine ecosystems – a review". Marine and Freshwater Research 62 (4): 365–371. doi:10.1071/MF10282. PMID 22319023. 
  9. ↑ Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum. 1. 1882. pp. 323. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5371. OCLC 2472326. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/5371. 
  10. ↑ Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien : eine Übersicht über das gesamte Pflanzensystem mit Berücksichtigung der Medicinal- und Nutzpflanzen nebst einer Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Florengebiete der Erde zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen und Studien über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik (3rd ed.). Berlin: Borntraeger. 1903. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.22956. 
  11. ↑ "The Protozoan Phylum Opalozoa". Eukaryotic Microbiology 40 (5): 609–615. September 1993. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1993.tb06117.x. 
  12. ↑ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Scoble, Josephine Margaret (2012). "Phylogeny of Heterokonta: Incisomonas marina, a uniciliate gliding opalozoan related to Solenicola (Nanomonadea), and evidence that Actinophryida evolved from raphidophytes". European Journal of Protistology 49 (3): 328–353. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2012.09.002. PMID 23219323. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0932473912000909. 
  13. ↑ "The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 52 (2): 297–354. 1 March 2002. doi:10.1099/00207713-52-2-297. PMID 11931142. 
  14. ↑ "Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)". Protist 154 (3–4): 341–358. 2003. doi:10.1078/143446103322454112. ISSN 1434-4610. PMID 14658494. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1434461004701467. 
  15. ↑ "Plasmodiophoridae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=889997. 
  16. ↑ Aquatic Phycomycetes. University of Michigan studies, Scientific series, v. 15. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. 1960. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5685. OCLC 1362167. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/5685. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Dick, Michael W. (2001). Straminipilous Fungi: Systematics of the Peronosporomycetes Including Accounts of the Marine Straminipilous Protists, the Plasmodiophorids and Similar Organisms (1 ed.). Springer Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-9733-3. ISBN 978-94-015-9733-3. 
  18. ↑ Neuhauser, Sigrid; Kirchmair, Martin (18 August 2011). "Sorosphaerula nom. n. for the Plasmodiophorid Genus Sorosphaera J. Schröter 1886 (Rhizaria: Endomyxa: Phytomyxea: Plasmodiophorida)". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 58 (5): 469–470. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00571.x. PMID 21851471. 
  19. ↑ Plasmodiophoraceae. https://www.mycobank.org/page/Name%20details%20page/name/Plasmodiophoraceae. 
  20. ↑ Juel. "Pyrrhosorus". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=177360. 
  21. ↑ Wijayawardene, N.N.; Hyde, K.D.; Dai, D.Q.; Sánchez-García, M.; Goto, B.T.; Saxena, R.K. et al. (2022). "Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021". Mycosphere 13 (1): 53–453. doi:10.5943/mycosphere/13/1/2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358798332. 

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