Biology:Pseudhipparion

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Pseudhipparion is an extinct genus of three-toed horse endemic to North America during the early to late Miocene.[1][2][3][4][5] They were herding animals whose diet consisted of C3 plants, implying that they were grazers. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12] Fossils of Pseudhipparion have been found in Georgia, Florida, Oregon, Montana, Kansas, Texas, Nebraska, and South Dakota indicate that it was a lightweight horse, weighing up to 90 pounds (40 kilograms).[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][excessive citations] In 2005, fossils were unearthed in Oklahoma.[22] Seven species of Pseudhipparion are known from the fossil record, which were very small, following the trend of Bergmann's rule.[23]

References

  1. ↑ Hulbert, R. C.; Czaplewski, N. J.; Webb, S. D. (2005). "New records of Pseudhipparion simpsoni (Mammalia, Equidae) from the late Hemphillian of Oklahoma and Florida". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 (3): 737. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0737:NROPSM2.0.CO;2]. 
  2. ↑ S.D. Webb, Richard C. Hulbert; Hulbert (Jan 1986). "Systematics and evolution of Pseudhipparion (Mammalia, Equidae) from the late Neogene of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Great Plains". Rocky Mountain Geology 24: 237–272. doi:10.2113/gsrocky.24.special_paper_3.237. ISBN 0941570029. https://archive.org/details/vertebratesphylo0000unse/page/237. 
  3. ↑ Baskin, Jon A. (1991). "Early Pliocene Horses from Late Pleistocene Fluvial Deposits, Gulf Coastal Plain, South Texas". Journal of Paleontology 65 (6): 995–1006. doi:10.1017/S0022336000033308. ISSN 0022-3360. Bibcode: 1991JPal...65..995B. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1305832. 
  4. ↑ Hulbert, Richard C. (1987). "Late Neogene Neohipparion (Mammalia, Equidae) from the Gulf Coastal Plain of Florida and Texas". Journal of Paleontology 61 (4): 809–830. doi:10.1017/S0022336000029152. ISSN 0022-3360. Bibcode: 1987JPal...61..809H. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1305291. 
  5. ↑ Killingsworth, Stephanie R.; MacFadden, Bruce J. (2024-01-24). "Species occurrences of Mio-Pliocene horses (Equidae) from Florida: sampling, ecology, or both?". Paleobiology 50 (2): 364–375. doi:10.1017/pab.2023.35. ISSN 0094-8373. https://doi.org/10.1017/pab.2023.35. 
  6. ↑ Feranec, Robert S.; MacFadden, Bruce J. (2006). "Isotopic Discrimination of Resource Partitioning among Ungulates in C3-Dominated Communities from the Miocene of Florida and California". Paleobiology 32 (2): 191–205. doi:10.1666/05006.1. ISSN 0094-8373. Bibcode: 2006Pbio...32..191F. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4096995. 
  7. ↑ MacFadden, Bruce J.; Solounias, Nikos; Cerling, Thure E. (1999). "Ancient Diets, Ecology, and Extinction of 5-Million-Year-Old Horses from Florida". Science 283 (5403): 824–827. doi:10.1126/science.283.5403.824. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 9933161. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2897243. 
  8. ↑ MacFadden, Bruce J. (2000). "Cenozoic Mammalian Herbivores from the Americas: Reconstructing Ancient Diets and Terrestrial Communities". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31 (1): 33–59. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.33. ISSN 0066-4162. Bibcode: 2000AnRES..31...33M. https://www.jstor.org/stable/221724. 
  9. ↑ Forsten, Ann (1973). "Abnormal Enamel Morphology in Fossil Equid Teeth". Journal of Mammalogy 54 (1): 255–258. doi:10.2307/1378887. ISSN 0022-2372. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1378887. 
  10. ↑ Maguire, Kaitlin Clare; Stigall, Alycia L. (October 2009). "Using ecological niche modeling for quantitative biogeographic analysis: a case study of Miocene and Pliocene Equinae in the Great Plains" (in en). Paleobiology 35 (4): 587–611. doi:10.1666/0094-8373-35.4.587. ISSN 0094-8373. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/using-ecological-niche-modeling-for-quantitative-biogeographic-analysis-a-case-study-of-miocene-and-pliocene-equinae-in-the-great-plains/2B996FA6D75455304A439B8E69061F26. 
  11. ↑ Passey, Benjamin H.; Cerling, Thure E.; Perkins, Michael E.; Voorhies, Michael R.; Harris, John M.; Tucker, Shane T. (March 2002). "Environmental Change in the Great Plains: An Isotopic Record from Fossil Horses". The Journal of Geology 110 (2): 123–140. doi:10.1086/338280. ISSN 0022-1376. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/338280. 
  12. ↑ MacFadden, Bruce J. (2008-08-27). "Geographic variation in diets of ancient populations of 5-million-year-old (early Pliocene) horses from southern North America". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Investigating climates, environments and biology using stable isotopes 266 (1): 83–94. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.03.019. ISSN 0031-0182. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018208002319. 
  13. ↑ "19A; Two Small Primitive Horses from Taylor County" (in en). https://www.georgiasfossils.com/19a-two-small-primitive-horses-from-taylor-county.html. 
  14. ↑ Shotwell, J. Arnold (1956-06-01). "Hemphillian Mammalian Assemblage From Northeastern Oregon". GSA Bulletin 67 (6): 717–738. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[717:HMAFNO2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0016-7606. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/67/6/717/4827/HEMPHILLIAN-MAMMALIAN-ASSEMBLAGE-FROM-NORTHEASTERN?redirectedFrom=fulltext. 
  15. ↑ KONIZESKI, R. L (1957-02-01). "Paleoecology of the Middle Pliocene Deer Lodge Local Fauna, Western Montana". GSA Bulletin 68 (2): 131–150. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[131:POTMPD2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0016-7606. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/68/2/131/4881/PALEOECOLOGY-OF-THE-MIDDLE-PLIOCENE-DEER-LODGE?redirectedFrom=fulltext. 
  16. ↑ David Webb, S.; Hulbert, Richard C., "Systematics and evolution ofPseudhipparion(Mammalia, Equidae) from the late Neogene of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Great Plains", Vertebrates, Phylogeny, and Philosophy (Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming): pp. 237–272, ISBN 0-941570-02-9, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsrocky.24.special_paper_3.237, retrieved 2025-03-30 
  17. ↑ Diffendal, R. F. (1987), "Ash Hollow State Historical Park", North-Central Section of the Geological Society of America (Geological Society of America): pp. 29–34, ISBN 0-8137-5403-8, https://doi.org/10.1130/0-8137-5403-8.29, retrieved 2025-03-30 
  18. ↑ Famoso, Nicholas; Pagnac, Darrin (2011-11-01). "A Comparison of the Clarendonian Equid Assemblages from the Mission Pit, South Dakota and Ashfall Fossil Beds, Nebraska". Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences and Affiliated Societies. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tnas/9/. 
  19. ↑ Orcutt, John D.; Schmer, Christiana J.; Lubisich, Jeffrey P.; Abrams, Lacy T.; Famoso, Nicholas A. (May 2024). "New occurrences of mammals from McKay Reservoir (Hemphillian, Oregon)" (in en). Journal of Paleontology 98 (3): 420–431. doi:10.1017/jpa.2023.98. ISSN 0022-3360. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-paleontology/article/new-occurrences-of-mammals-from-mckay-reservoir-hemphillian-oregon/9162FBFA6C9829AA3346E7C9BCDA1A9A. 
  20. ↑ Calvello, Michael. Mammalian Fauna From The Fullerton Gravel Pit (Ogallala Group, Late Miocene), Morton County, Kansas (Thesis). Fort Hays State University.
  21. ↑ Forsten, Ann (1975). "The Fossil Horses from the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain". Journal of Paleontology 49 (2): 395–399. ISSN 0022-3360. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1303369. 
  22. ↑ Hulbert, Richard C.; Czaplewski, Nicholas J.; Webb, S. David (2005-09-30). [0737:nropsm2.0.co;2 "New records ofPseudhipparion simpsoni(Mammalia, Equidae) from the late Hemphillian of Oklahoma and Florida"]. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 (3): 737–740. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0737:nropsm2.0.co;2]. ISSN 0272-4634. http://dx.doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0737:nropsm]2.0.co;2. 
  23. ↑ David Webb, S.; Hulbert, Richard C. (1986), "Systematics and evolution ofPseudhipparion(Mammalia, Equidae) from the late Neogene of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Great Plains", Vertebrates, Phylogeny, and Philosophy (Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming): pp. 237–272, doi:10.2113/gsrocky.24.special_paper_3.237, ISBN 0941570029, http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsrocky.24.special_paper_3.237, retrieved 2022-09-01 

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