Biology:Sclerocarya birrea
| Marula | |
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| S. birrea with and without foliage | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Sapindales |
| Family: | Anacardiaceae |
| Genus: | Sclerocarya |
| Species: | S. birrea
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| Binomial name | |
| Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.
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| Synonyms | |
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Poupartia birrea (A. Rich.) Aubrév | |
Sclerocarya birrea (Ancient Greek: ⟨sklērós⟩, meaning "hard", and κάρυον ⟨káryon⟩, "nut", in reference to the stone inside the fleshy fruit), commonly known as the marula, is a medium-sized deciduous fruit-bearing tree, indigenous to the miombo woodlands of Southern Africa, the Sudano-Sahelian range of West Africa, the savanna woodlands of East Africa and Madagascar .
Description
The tree is a single stemmed tree with a wide spreading crown. It is characterised by a grey mottled bark. The tree grows up to 18 m tall mostly in low altitudes and open woodlands. The distribution of this species throughout Africa and Madagascar has followed the Bantu in their migrations. There is some evidence of human domestication of marula trees, as trees found on farm lands tend to have larger fruit size.[2]
The fruits, which ripen between December and March, have a light yellow skin (exocarp), with white flesh (mesocarp). They fall to the ground when unripe and green in colour, and then ripen to a yellow colour on the ground. They are succulent and tart with a strong and distinctive flavour.[3] Inside is a walnut-sized, thick-walled stone (endocarp). These stones, when dry, expose the seeds by shedding 2 (sometimes 3) small circular plugs at one end. The fruits are drupes with a single seed encased within their endocarp, although up to four seeds can be present.[4] The seeds have a delicate nutty flavour and are much sought-after, especially by small rodents who know to gnaw exactly where the plugs are located.
The trees are dioecious. Male trees produce multiple male flowers on a terminal raceme. These have red sepals and petals, and about 20 stamens per flower. On rare occasion a male flower can produce a gynoecium, turning it bisexual. Female flowers grow individually on their own pedicel and have staminodes.[4] The leaves are alternate, compound, and imparipinnately divided. The leaflet shapes range from round to elliptical.
Taxonomy and etymology
Sclerocarya birrea is divided into three subspecies: subsp. birrea, subsp. caffra and subsp. multifoliolata.[4] These subspecies are differentiated by changes in leaf shape and size. Subsp. birrea is found in northern Africa, subsp. caffra is found in southern Africa, and subsp. multifoliolata is only found in Tanzania.[4]
The generic name Sclerocarya is derived from the Ancient Greek words 'skleros' meaning 'hard' and 'karyon' meaning 'nut'. This refers to the hard pit of the fruit. The specific epithet 'birrea' comes from the common name 'birr', for this type of tree in Senegal.[4] The marula belongs to the same family, Anacardiaceae, as the mango, cashew, pistachio and sumac, and is closely related to the genus Poupartia from Madagascar.
Common names include jelly plum, cat thorn, morula, cider tree, marula, maroola nut/plum, and in Afrikaans, maroela.[5]
Uses
Traditional uses
The fruit is traditionally used for food in Africa, and has considerable socioeconomic importance.[6] The fruit juice and pulp are mixed with water and stored in a container over 1–3 days of fermentation to make marula beer, a traditional alcoholic beverage.[7] The alcoholic distilled beverage (maroela-mampoer) made from the fruit is referenced in the stories of the South African writer Herman Charles Bosman.[citation needed] Marula oil is used topically to moisturise the skin, and as an edible oil in the diet of San people in Southern Africa.[8][9] The marula tree is protected in South Africa.[5]
Commercial uses
On an industrial level the fruit of the marula tree is collected from the wild by members of rural communities on whose land the trees grow. This harvest and sale of fruit only occur over two to three months, but is an important source of income to poor rural people, especially women.[10] The fruit is delivered to processing plants where fruit pulp, pips, kernels and kernel oil are extracted and stored for processing throughout the year.[citation needed]
Uses by other species
The marula fruit is eaten by various animals in Southern Africa. Giraffes, rhinoceroses and elephants all browse on the marula tree, with elephants in particular being a major consumer. Elephants eat the bark, branches and fruits of the marula, which may limit the spread of the trees. The damaged bark, due to browsing, can be used to identify marula trees as elephants preferentially target them. Elephants distribute marula seeds in their dung.[11] In the documentary Animals Are Beautiful People by Jamie Uys, released in 1974, some scenes portray elephants, ostriches, warthogs and baboons allegedly becoming intoxicated from eating fermented marula fruit, as do reports in the popular press.[12] While the fruit is commonly eaten by elephants, the animals would need a huge amount of fermented marulas to have any effect on them,[11] and other animals prefer the ripe fruit.
The marula fruit has been suggested to be the food of choice for the ancestral forest-dwelling form of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which was much more selective about which fruit they preferred than the flies that have self-domesticated to live near to humans. The ancestral fruit flies are triggered by the ester ethyl isovalerate in the marula fruit.[13]
Gallery
Marula windfalls in Ongwediva, Namibia
Marula stones
Marula seeds
Marula oil for sale at Ongwediva Annual Trade Fair 2016, Namibia
References
- ↑ "Entry for Sclerocarya birrea". JSTOR Global Plants. JSTOR. http://plants.jstor.org/flora/fwta4296.
- ↑ Leakey, Roger; Shackleton, Sheona; Du Plessis, Pierre (2005). "Domestication potential of Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp caffra) in South Africa and Namibia: 1. Phenotypic variation in fruit traits". Agroforestry Systems 64 (1): 25–35. doi:10.1007/s10457-005-2419-z.
- ↑ Wickens, G. E.; Food and Agriculture Organization (1995). "Potential Edible Nuts". Edible Nuts. Non-Wood Forest Products. 5. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. ISBN 92-5-103748-5. OCLC 34529770. http://www.fao.org/docrep/V8929E/v8929e06.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 "Sclerocarya birrea". 15 May 2018. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Sclerocarya_birrea_(PROTA).
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Protected Trees". Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Republic of South Africa. 3 May 2013. http://www2.dwaf.gov.za/dwaf/cmsdocs/4116___poster%20protected%20trees.pdf.
- ↑ National Research Council (2008-01-25). "Marula". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume III: Fruits. 3. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10596-5. OCLC 34344933. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11879&page=117. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ↑ "The marvellous brewers of marula beer" (in en-US). Eco products. 2016-03-14. https://www.ecoproducts.co.za/marvellous-brewers-marula-beer/.
- ↑ Engelter & Wehmeyer; Wehmeyer, A.S. (1970). "Fatty acid composition of oils of some edible seeds of wild plants". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 18 (1): 25–26. doi:10.1021/jf60167a025. PMID 5524461.
- ↑ Shackleton, S.E. (2002). A summary of knowledge on Sclerocarya birrea with emphasis on its importance as a NTFP in South and Southern Africa.
- ↑ Sheona, Shackleton (2004). "Livelihood benefits from the local level commercialization of savanna resources: a case study of the new and expanding trade in marula (Sclerocarya birrea) beer in Bushbuckridge, South Africa". South African Journal of Science 100 (11): 651–657. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sabinet/sajsci/2004/00000100/00000011/art00031.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Morris, Steve; Humphreys, David; Reynolds, Dan (2006). "Myth, Marula, and Elephant: An Assessment of Voluntary Ethanol Intoxication of the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Following Feeding on the Fruit of the Marula Tree (Sclerocarya birrea)". Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 79 (2): 363–369. doi:10.1086/499983. PMID 16555195. http://www.bio.bris.ac.uk/research/morlab/Morris%20et%20al%20%5BPBZ%5D%202006.pdf. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ↑ Couper, Ross. "Elephants drunk on native fruit at South Africa's Singita Sabi Sand". https://news.yahoo.com/photos/elephants-drunk-on-native-fruit-at-south-africa-s-singita-sabi-sand-1398369057-slideshow/.
- ↑ Mansourian, Suzan; Enjin, Anders V.; Jirle, Erling; Ramesh, Vedika; Rehermann, Guillermo; Becher, Paul G.; Pool, John E.; Stensmyr, Marcus C. (December 6, 2018). "Wild African Drosophila melanogaster Are Seasonal Specialists on Marula Fruit". Cell 28 (24): 3960–3968.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.10.033. PMID 30528579.
External links
Wikidata ☰ Q675778 entry
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