Earth:Great Smoky Mountains National Park

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Short description: National park in Tennessee and North Carolina
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
IUCN category II (national park)[1]
View atop Cliff Tops on Mount LeConte, GSMNP, TN.jpg
View from the Cliff Tops formation atop Mount Le Conte
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LocationSwain & Haywood counties in North Carolina; Sevier, Blount, & Cocke counties in Tennessee , United States
Nearest cityCherokee, North Carolina, Bryson City, North Carolina, Townsend, Tennessee, Cosby, Tennessee and Gatlinburg, Tennessee
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 35°36′40″N 83°25′30″W / 35.61111°N 83.425°W / 35.61111; -83.425 (Newfound Gap)[2]
Area522,419 acres (2,114.15 km2)[3]
EstablishedJune 15, 1934
Visitors14,137,812 (in 2020)[4][5]
Governing bodyNational Park Service
WebsiteGreat Smoky Mountains National Park
CriteriaNatural: vii, viii, ix, x
Reference259
Inscription1983 (7th session)

Great Smoky Mountains National Park is an American national park in the southeastern United States, with parts in North Carolina and Tennessee . The park straddles the ridgeline of the Great Smoky Mountains, part of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which are a division of the larger Appalachian Mountain chain. The park contains some of the highest mountains in eastern North America, including Clingmans Dome, Mount Guyot, and Mount Le Conte. The border between the two states runs northeast to southwest through the center of the park. The Appalachian Trail passes through the center of the park on its route from Georgia to Maine. With 14.1 million visitors in 2021, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is the most visited national park in the United States.[6]

The park encompasses 522,419 acres (816.28 sq mi; 211,415.47 ha; 2,114.15 km2), making it one of the largest protected areas in the eastern United States.[3] The main park entrances are located along U.S. Highway 441 (Newfound Gap Road) in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, and Cherokee, North Carolina, and also in Townsend, Tennessee. The park is internationally recognized for its mountains, waterfalls, biodiversity, and forests.[7] In addition, the park preserves multiple historical structures that were part of communities occupied by early European-American settlers of the area.[8]

The park was chartered by the United States Congress in 1934 and officially dedicated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. The Great Smoky Mountains was the first national park having land and other costs paid in part with federal funds; previous parks were funded wholly with state money or private funds.[9] The park was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and an International Biosphere Reserve in 1988.[10]

The park anchors a large tourism industry based in Sevier County, Tennessee, adjacent to the park. Major attractions include Dollywood, the second-most visited tourist attraction in Tennessee, Ober Gatlinburg, and Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies. Tourism to the park contributes an estimated $2.5 billion annually into the local economy.[11]

Geography

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park covers a total of 522,419 acres (816.28 sq mi; 211,415.47 ha; 2,114.15 km2) of the Great Smoky Mountains, a subrange of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains. The park is roughly evenly divided between Tennessee and North Carolina, and is located within portions of Blount, Sevier, and Cocke Counties in Tennessee, and Swain and Haywood Counties in North Carolina.[12] Elevations in the park range from about 875 feet (267 m) to 6,643 feet (2,025 m) at the summit of Clingmans Dome. Within the park, 16 mountains reach higher than 5,000 feet (1,520 m).[13] Clingmans Dome is also the highest mountain in Tennessee and the third-highest mountain east of the Mississippi River.[14] Mount Le Conte, at an elevation of 6,593 feet (2,010 m), rises 5,301 feet (1,616 m) from is base to its summit, making it the tallest mountain in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.[15] The wide range of elevations mimics the latitudinal changes found throughout the entire eastern United States.

The Little Tennessee River runs along the southwestern border of the park, which is impounded by Chilhowee Dam, Calderwood Dam, Cheoah Dam, and Fontana Dam along the boundary. This river separates the Great Smoky Mountains range from the Unicoi Mountains to the west. The Pigeon River flows through a deep gorge near the eastern boundary of the park, separating the range from the Bald Mountains to the west. Several smaller rivers have their source in the park, including the three prongs of the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and the Little River. The park is located entirely within the Tennessee Valley, the watershed of the Tennessee River. Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. The park borders an Indian reservation to the south that is home to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, a federally-recognized tribe who are descended from a small group of Cherokee who evaded the forced migration of the Cherokee people to present-day Oklahoma. The town of Gatlinburg is located directly north of the park.

Geology

The majority of rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park are late Precambrian rocks that are part of the Ocoee Supergroup. This group consists of metamorphosed sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slate. Early Precambrian rocks are not only the oldest rocks in the park but also the dominant rock type in sites such as the Raven Fork valley and upper Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City. They primarily consist of metamorphic gneiss, granite, and schist. Cambrian sedimentary rocks can be found among the bottom of the foothills to the northwest, and in limestone coves.[16] One of the most visited attractions in the mountains is Cades Cove, which is a window or an area where older rocks made out of sandstone surround the valley floor of younger rocks made out of limestone.

The oldest rocks in the Smokies are the Precambrian gneiss and schists which were formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock. In the late Precambrian, the primordial ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from the accumulation of eroding land mass onto the continental shelf. In the Paleozoic era, the ocean deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rock. During the Ordovician period, the collision of the North American and African tectonic plates initiated the Alleghenian orogeny that created the Appalachian range. During the Mesozoic era rapid erosion of softer sedimentary rocks re-exposed the older Ocoee Supergroup formations.[17]

Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached the Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately 4,950 feet (1,510 m). The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at the base of large mountain slopes.[18]

Environment

The observation tower at Clingmans Dome, the highest point in the national park

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Great Smoky Mountains National Park has two climate types: humid subtropical (Cfa), and temperate oceanic (Cfb).[citation needed] The plant hardiness zone at Clingmans Dome Visitor Center is 5b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of −14.3 °F (−25.7 °C).[19] Ascending the mountains is comparable to a trip from Tennessee to Canada.

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The humid, subtropical air mass typically in place over the Smoky Mountains, coupled with orographic lift, produces large amounts of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50–80 in (1,300–2,000 mm),[22] with heavy winter snowfall in the higher elevations.[23] Flash flooding often occurs after heavy rain.[22]

The average temperature difference between the mountains, such as Newfound Gap at 5,048 ft (1,539 m) above MSL, and the valleys at about 1,600 ft (488 m), is between 10–13 °F (5.6–7.2 °C) for highs, and between 3–6 °F (1.7–3.3 °C) for lows. The difference between high temperatures is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate of 3.3 °F (1.8 °C) per 1,000 ft (300 m), while the smaller difference between low temperatures is the result of frequent temperature inversions developing in the morning, most often in autumn.[24]

Strong damaging winds of 80–100 mph (130–160 km/h) or higher occur a few times each year around the Smoky Mountains, mainly during the cool season from October to April, as a result of a phenomenon known as mountain waves.[25] Mountain waves are strongest in a narrow area along the foothills and can create extensive areas of fallen trees and roof damage, especially around Cades Cove and Cove Mountain.[26] Strong winds created by mountain waves were a contributing factor in the devastating Gatlinburg fire on November 28, 2016, during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires.[27] Damaging winds can also be generated by strong thunderstorms, with tornadoes and strong thunderstorm complexes (also known as mesoscale convective systems) occasionally affecting the Smoky Mountains.[28]

Air pollution

The park is affected by air pollution because of increased development. In a 2004 report by the National Parks Conservation Association, Great Smoky Mountains National Park was considered the most polluted national park. From 1999 to 2003, the park recorded approximately 150 unhealthy air days, the equivalent of about one month of unhealthy air days per year.[29][30] In 2013, Colorado State University reported that, with the passing of the United States Clean Air Act in 1970 and the subsequent implementation of the Acid Rain Program, there had been a "significant improvement" to the air quality in the Great Smoky Mountains from 1990 to 2010.[31][32] With steady improvements in noxious emissions, visibility in the park on the haziest days has improved from an average of 9 miles in 1998 to 40 miles in 2018.[33] A report published in 2023 by the North Carolina Division of Air Quality indicates significant drops in emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic compounds, and fine particulate matter.[34]

Biology and ecology

Flora

Colorful autumn leaves

Forests cover approximately 95 percent of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.[35] An estimated 20 to 25 percent of the forests in the park are estimated to be old-growth forest, with many trees that predate European settlement of the area.[36][37][38] This is one of the largest blocks of deciduous, temperate, old growth forest in North America. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The variety of elevations, the abundant rainfall, and the presence of old growth forests give the park an unusual richness of biota. The park is home to over 1,500 species of flowering plants, more than in any other national park in North America.[39] These include 35 kinds of delicate orchids, 27 violets, and 58 members of the lily family. The park contains 101 species of native trees and 114 species of native shrubs.[40] The park also contains over 490 species of non-vascular plants. More than 2,700 fungi, 952 algae, and 563 lichen species are found in the park.[41] Plants and animals common in the country's Northeast have found suitable ecological niches in the park's higher elevations, while southern species find homes in the balmier lower reaches. About 19,000 species of organisms are known to live in the park, and estimates as high as an additional 100,000 undocumented species may also be present.

The forests of the Smokies are typically divided into three zones—The cove hardwood forests in the stream valleys, coves, and lower mountain slopes; the northern hardwood forests on the higher mountain slopes; and the spruce-fir or boreal forest at the very highest elevations. Appalachian balds—patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds and heath balds. Heath balds are covered mostly in shrubbery that is part of the heath family such as rhododendron and mountain laurel. They are primarily found in the northeastern part of the park on narrow ridges at elevations between 3,600 and 5,200 feet (1,100 and 1,600 m).[42] Grass balds are mountaintop meadows that are mostly covered in grasses and sedges. They are typically found on rounded mountaintops or slopes in the southwestern part of the park at elevations ranging from 4,500 to 5,700 feet (1,400 to 1,700 m).[43] Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south-facing North Carolina side of the range.[44]

Cove hardwood forest

Cove hardwood forest along Cosby Creek

Cove hardwood forests, which are native to southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some 72,000 acres (290 km2) are still old-growth.[37] They are found in the valleys between mountain ridges at elevations below 4,500 feet (1,400 m) in deep moist soil.[45] The Albright Grove along the Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old-growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.[46]

Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), basswood (Tilia americana), yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera; commonly called "tulip poplar"), silverbells (Halesia carolina), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis).[45][47] The American chestnut (Castanea dentata), which was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the early-to-mid 20th century.[48][49]

The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens).[50]

Northern hardwood forest

The autumn colors of the northern hardwood canopy near Newfound Gap give way to the dark-green spruce-fir canopy as altitude increases

The mean annual temperatures in the higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests constitute the highest broad-leaved forest in the eastern United States.[51] About 28,600 acres (116 km2) are old-growth.[37]

In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). White basswood (Tilia heterophylla), mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum), and yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava) are also present. The understory is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort, bloodroot, hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns.[52]

A unique community is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as the red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown.[53]

Spruce-fir forest

Spruce fir stand near the summit of Clingmans Dome

The Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest—also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the ice ages, when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on the harsh mountain tops, typically above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). About 10,600 acres (43 km2) of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth.[37]

The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species—red spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri). The Fraser firs, which are native to southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in the Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of the balsam wooly adelgid, which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser firs remain atop Clingmans Dome and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands were logged in the 1910s, the tree is still common throughout the range above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). Some of the red spruces are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over 100 feet (30 m).[54]

The main difference between the Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former, which are home to catawba rhododendron, mountain ash, pin cherry, thornless blackberry, and hobblebush. The herbaceous and litter layers are poorly lit year-round and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern, and over 280 species of mosses.[55]

Wildflowers

Rhododendron atop the Ben Parton Lookout

Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys, including bee balm, Solomon's seal, Dutchman's breeches, various trilliums, the Dragon's Advocate and even hardy orchids. There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and white or light pink blooms in June and July.[39]

The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between the two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs, whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter.

Fauna

Park officials count more than 200 species of birds, 50 species of fish, 39 species of reptiles, and 43 species of amphibians, including many lungless salamanders. The park is an important site for salamanders.[56] The park has a noteworthy black bear population, numbering about 1,500.[57] An attempt to reintroduce red wolves into the park in 1991 failed drastically, forcing the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services to remove the wolves from the area in 1998. Elk were reintroduced to the park in 2001. Elk are most abundant in the Cataloochee area in the southeastern section of the park.[58] It is also home to species of mammals such as the raccoon, bobcat, two species of fox, river otter, woodchuck, beaver, two species of squirrel, opossum, coyote, white-tailed deer, chipmunk, two species of skunk, and various species of bats.

Over 100 species of trees grow in the park. The lower region forests are dominated by deciduous leafy trees. At higher altitudes, deciduous forests give way to coniferous trees like Fraser fir. In addition, the park has over 1,400 flowering plant species and over 4,000 species of non-flowering plants.

Fish species include[59] American gizzard shad, lamoetra appendix, longnose gar, mountain brook lamprey, and brook trout.

Attractions and activities

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is a major tourist attraction in the region. It has been the most visited national park for many years, with over 14.1 million recreational visitors (tourists) in 2021.[60] The recreational figure represents nearly twice as many tourists as the Grand Canyon, which received nearly 6 million visitors the same year. Surrounding towns—notably Gatlinburg, Pigeon Forge, Sevierville, and Townsend in Tennessee, and Cherokee, Sylva, Maggie Valley, and Bryson City in North Carolina—receive a significant portion of their income from tourism associated with the park.

The park features three main entrances, located in Gatlinburg, Cherokee, and Townsend. Entrance into the park is free, while there is a fee for parking.[61] U.S. Route 441 (US 441, Newfound Gap Road) is the main road through the park, and runs between Cherokee and Gatlinburg.[62] The Gatlinburg entrance to the park is the busiest, and is also the southern terminus of the Great Smoky Mountains Parkway, a highway which connects the park to Pigeon Forge, Sevierville, and Interstate 40 to the north.[63] The two main visitor centers inside the park are the Sugarlands Visitors' Center near the Gatlinburg entrance and the Oconaluftee Visitor Center near the Cherokee entrance. These vistor centers also contain ranger stations, and provide exhibits on wildlife, geology, and the history of the park. They also sell books, maps, and souvenirs. Little River Gorge road, which runs along the Little River and connects to US 441 at the Sugarlands Visitor Center.

Hiking and trails

The Alum Cave Trail to the summit of Mount LeConte provides numerous views of the Great Smoky Mountains.

There are 850 miles (1,370 km) of trails and unpaved roads in the park for hiking.

A total of the 71.6 miles (115.2 km) of the Appalachian Trail (AT) are located within the park.[64] The AT enters the park atop Fontana Dam, and ascends a long ridge to the top of Brier Lick Knob at the Tennessee-North Carolina state line. The trail then roughly follows the crest of the range and the state line for its remainder in the park, rarely dropping below 5,000 feet (1,500 m).[65] Clingmans Dome is the highest point along the entire trail.[66] Other notable summits that the AT traverses include Thunderhead Mountain, Silers Bald, Mount Collins, Newfound Gap, Mount Kephart, Charlies Bunion, Mount Sequoyah, Mount Chapman, Mount Guyot, Old Black, and Mount Cammerer. A total of 12 trail shelters are located along the Appalachian Trail in the park, which are used mostly for extended backpacking trips.[65]

Mount Le Conte is one of the most frequented destinations in the park, with a total of five trails leading to its summit. The most heavily traveled is the Alum Cave Trail. It provides many scenic overlooks and unique natural attractions such as Alum Cave Bluffs and Arch Rock.[67] The Bullhead and Rainbow Falls trails each climb approximately 4,000 feet (1,200 m), making them two of the trails with the largest net elevation gain east of the Mississippi River.[68] Hikers may spend a night at the LeConte Lodge, located near the summit, which provides cabins and rooms for rent except during the winter season.[69] Accessible solely by trail, it is the only private lodging available inside the park, and the highest inn in the eastern United States.[70] The Mt. LeConte Shelter is located atop the mountain on The Boulevard Trail. It can accommodate 12 people per night and is the only backcountry site in the park that has a permanent ban on campfires.[71]

The Chimney Tops was a popular destination for hikers until access to its summit was closed due to damage from the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires.

Another popular hiking trail leads to the pinnacle of the Chimney Tops, so named because of its unique dual-humped peaktops. This short but strenuous trek rewards nature enthusiasts with a spectacular panorama of the surrounding mountain peaks. It was the flashpoint for the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, and therefore sustained extensive damage, evident still today in clearly visible burn scars. The extreme heat of the fires resulted in accelerated weathering and potential mass wasting of the exposed rock, and therefore access to the summit is no longer permitted for safety reasons.

Both the Laurel Falls and Clingmans Dome trails offer relatively easy, short, paved paths to their respective destinations. The Laurel Falls Trail leads to a powerful 80-foot (24 m) waterfall.

In addition to day hiking, the national park offers opportunities for backpacking and camping. Camping is allowed only in designated camping areas and shelters. There are three shelters in the park that are not located on the Appalachian Trail. The Kephart Shelter is located at the terminus of the Kephart Prong Trail which begins upstream of the Collins Creek Picnic Area. The shelter, situated along a tributary of the Oconaluftee River can accommodate 14 people. Laurel Gap Shelter is one of the more remote shelters in the park. Situated in a beech forest swag between Balsam High Top and Big Cataloochee Mountain, the Laurel Gap Shelter can accommodate up to 14 people per night. This shelter is a popular base camp for peakbaggers exploring the heart of the Smokies wilderness.

Sightseeing

The most frequented destination in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is Cades Cove, a cleared valley that provides dramatic views of the surrounding mountains. Cades cove has numerous preserved historic buildings including log cabins, barns, and churches. Cades Cove is the single most frequented destination in the national park. An 11-mile (18 km) one-way loop road encircles Cades Cove. Self-guided automobile and bicycle tours offer the many sightseers a glimpse into the way of life of old-time southern Appalachia. Other historical areas within the park include Roaring Fork, Cataloochee, Elkmont, and the Mountain Farm Museum and Mingus Mill in Oconaluftee.

U.S. Route 441 (Newfound Gap Road) providing automobile access to many trailheads and overlooks, most notably that of Newfound Gap. At an elevation of 5,048 feet (1,539 m), it is the lowest gap in the crest of the mountains and is situated near the center of the park, on the Tennessee/North Carolina state line, halfway between Gatlinburg and Cherokee. It was here that in 1940, from the Rockefeller Memorial, Franklin Delano Roosevelt dedicated the national park. On clear days Newfound Gap offers arguably the most spectacular scenes accessible via highway in the park. A 45-foot (14 m) observation tower is located atop Clingmans Dome, and is accessible via a 1⁄2-mile (0.80 km) trail that connects to a parking area and overlook. The tower provides a 360 degree view over the Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia mountains. On a clear day, visibility can range as far as 100 miles (160 km), but is often limited to 20 miles (32 km) by air pollution.[72]

In addition to Newfound Gap Road and Cades Cove, a number of additional scenic drives and overlooks are found throughout the park. Lakeview Drive, located along the north shore of Fontana Lake, is a scenic road that was never completed. Split in two segments, it is accessible via either Fontana Dam or Bryson City. It features an unused road tunnel and connects to various hiking and horseback riding trails in the area. The Foothills Parkway is a scenic parkway maintained by the park that was also never completed. It consists of two noncontiguous segments located to the northwest and northeast of the park, respectively. The foothills parkway traverses a number of high ridges in the foothills of the Great Smoky Mountains, and provides unobstructed views of the mountains to the south, as well as the Tennessee Valley to the north. The southern terminus of the Blue Ridge Parkway is located on the edge of the park in Cherokee. The Gatlinburg Bypass provides scenic views of the mountains that rise around Gatlinburg.[62]

Cades Cove panorama

Other activities

After hiking and simple sightseeing, fishing (especially fly fishing) is the most popular activity in the national park. The park's waters have long had a reputation for healthy trout activity as well as challenging fishing terrain. Brook trout are native to the waters, while both brown and rainbow were introduced to the area. There are strict regulations regarding how fishing may be conducted. Horseback riding (offered by the national park and on limited trails), bicycling (available for rent in Cades Cove) and water tubing are all also practiced within the park.

Designated backcountry campsites are scattered throughout the park. A permit, available at ranger stations and via the park website, is required for all backcountry camping. Additionally, reservations are required for all of the shelters and backcountry campsites. A maximum stay of one night, in the case of shelters, or three nights, in the case of campsites, may limit the traveler's itinerary.

From late May to early June, the Elkmont area of the park hosts the peak display period for synchronous fireflies (Photinus carolinus), one of at least 19 species of fireflies that live in the park.[73] They are the only species in America whose individuals can synchronize their flashing light patterns.[74]

History

For thousands of years, the region was occupied by successive cultures of indigenous peoples. The historic Cherokee had their homeland here and occupied numerous towns in the river valleys on both sides of the Appalachian Mountains. Their first encounters with Europeans were as traders, mostly coming from the colonial Carolinas and Virginia.

European Americans did not begin to settle here until the late 18th and early 19th centuries.[75] Particularly because of their pressure to acquire land in the Deep South, in 1830 President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, beginning the process that eventually resulted in the forced removal of all Indian tribes east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).

Most of the Cherokee were also removed. For a period some, led by such warriors as Tsali, evaded removal by staying in the area now part of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. A band on the Oconaluftee River acquired land and also remained. Their descendants make up most of the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, based in Cherokee, North Carolina, and their Qualla Boundary reserve to the south of the park.

Clearcut logging in the Blue Ridge Mountains in Tennessee in 1936

John Mingus, who built the Mingus Mill, and Ralph Hughes settled on the Oconaluftee in 1795. Other settlers soon followed and began clearing land and farming. In 1818, John Oliver and his family were the first white settlers to move into Cades Cove. After 1821, more families settled in Cades Cove including the Jobes, Gregorys, Sparkes, and Cables. As the community began to grow, the Cades Cove Baptist Church was established in 1827.[76]

As white settlers arrived, entrepreneurs developed logging as a major industry in the mountains. The Little River Railroad was constructed by Colonel W. B. Townsend[76] in the late-19th century to haul timber out of the remote regions of the area. Townsend had purchased 86,000 acres of land on the Little River. The construction of the Little River Railroad set an example for larger companies like the Ritter Lumber Company, Montvale Timber Company, and Norwood Lumber to also purchase acres of land for logging. The logging company Champion purchased 92,000 acres (37,000 ha) of land which included the Greenbrier Cove area and areas from Clingman's Dome to Mount Kephart. By 1909 logging was at its peak, and by 1920 about two-thirds of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park area had been logged or burned by fires from logging operations.[76]

Because cut-and-run-style clearcutting was destroying the natural beauty of the area, by the 20th century visitors and locals banded together to raise money for preservation of the land. The U.S. National Park Service wanted a park in the eastern United States but did not have much money to establish one. David C. Chapman, a Knoxville, Tennessee, business leader, was appointed in 1925 to head a commission to establish a national park. Congress authorized the park in 1926, but there was no nucleus of federally owned land around which to develop it. John D. Rockefeller Jr. contributed $5 million, the U.S. government added $2 million, and private citizens from Tennessee and North Carolina pitched in to assemble the land for the park, piece by piece.

Slowly, mountain homesteaders, miners, and loggers were evicted from the land. Farms and timbering operations were abolished to establish the protected areas of the park. Travel writer Horace Kephart, for whom Mount Kephart was named, and photographers Jim Thompson and George Masa were instrumental in fostering the development of the park.[9][77] Ben W. Hooper, a former governor of Tennessee, was the principal land purchasing agent for the park,[78] which was officially established on June 15, 1934. During the Great Depression, the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and other federal organizations hired workers to build trails, fire watchtowers, and other infrastructure improvements to the park and Smoky Mountains.

Historic areas

The Becky Cable House in the Cades Cove Historic District was built in 1879.

The park service maintains four historic districts and one archaeological district within park boundaries, as well as nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places. Notable structures not listed include the Mountain Farm Museum buildings at Oconaluftee and buildings in the Cataloochee area. The Mingus Mill (in Oconaluftee) and Smoky Mountain Hiking Club cabin in Greenbrier have been deemed eligible for listing.

Historic districts

  • Cades Cove Historic District
  • Elkmont Historic District
  • Oconaluftee Archaeological District
  • Noah Ogle Place
  • Roaring Fork Historic District

Individual listings

The John Ownby Cabin in The Sugarlands valley was built in 1860.
  • Alex Cole Cabin
  • Clingmans Dome Observation Tower
  • Hall Cabin (in Hazel Creek area)
  • John Messer Barn
  • John Ownby Cabin
  • Oconaluftee Baptist Church (also called Smokemont Baptist Church)
  • Tyson McCarter Place
  • Mayna Treanor Avent Studio
  • Little Greenbrier School
  • Walker Sisters Place

Cultural importance

The park was designated an International Biosphere Reserve in 1976, was certified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, and became a part of the Southern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve in 1988.[79] A 75th anniversary re-dedication ceremony was held on 2 September 2009. Among those in attendance were the four U.S. senators from Tennessee and North Carolina, the three U.S. Representatives whose districts include the park, the governors of both states, and Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar. Dolly Parton, Tennessee native, singer, and actress also attended and performed.[80]

In late November and early December 2016, a series of wildfires engulfed a total of 17,900 acres (72 km2) in the park and surrounding areas. The wildfires killed at least 14, injured 190, and forced the evacuation of more than 14,000 people.[81] The fires also damaged or destroyed at least 2,000 structures. The fires, which were initially suspected to have been caused by arson, occurred during a period of unusual drought, which accelerated the fires. The wildfires were the deadliest in the Eastern United States since the Great Fires of 1947 and comprised one of the worst natural disasters in the history of Tennessee.[82]

In 2015 Cassius Cash was appointed as the first African-American superintendent of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. He is the 16th superintendent of the park.[83]

In 2023, the national park was featured on a USPS Priority Mail Express stamp depicting a scene near Newfound Gap. The stamp was designed by USPS art director Greg Breeding, with art from Dan Cosgrove.[84]

See also

  • Great Smoky Mountains Association
  • Great Smoky Mountains Heritage Center
  • Wildflowers of the Great Smoky Mountains
  • List of birds of Great Smoky Mountains National Park
  • List of national parks of the United States

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Great Smoky Mountains in United States of America . protectedplanet.net. United Nations Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre and the IUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
  2. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains National Park". United States Geological Survey. https://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1018241. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Listing of acreage as of December 31, 2011". Land Resource Division, National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/lwcf/upload/NPS-Acreage-12-31-2011.pdf. 
  4. ↑ "Annual Visitation Highlights". National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/socialscience/annual-visitation-highlights.htm. 
  5. ↑ Riley, Sarah; Lacey, Derek (January 20, 2022). "Great Smoky Mountains National Park shatters previous annual record by 1.5 million visits". The Knoxville News-Sentinel. https://www.knoxnews.com/story/news/environment/2022/01/20/great-smoky-mountains-national-park-shatters-visitation-record-2021/6593679001/. 
  6. ↑ "Visitation Numbers". National Park Service. 2020. https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/visitation-numbers.htm. 
  7. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains National Park". National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/grsm/index.htm. 
  8. ↑ Cuthbert, Lori; Yogerst, Joe (March 28, 2019). "Everything to know about Great Smoky Mountains National Park". National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/national-parks/great-smoky-mountains-national-park/. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 The National Parks: America's Best Idea. Archived from the original on 1 January 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2017. Ken Burns, broadcast on PBS.
  10. ↑ "Global Context". National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/management/globalcontext.htm. 
  11. ↑ "Sevier County's billion-dollar tourist industry grinds to a halt amid COVID-19 pandemic". WVLT-TV (Knoxville, Tennessee). 2020-03-23. https://www.wvlt.tv/content/news/Sevier-Countys-billion-dollar-tourist-industry-grinds-to-a-halt-amid-COVID-19-pandemic--569046301.html. 
  12. ↑ DeLorme (2017). Tennessee Atlas & Gazetteer (Map) (2017 ed.). 1 in:2.5 mi. Yarmouth, Maine: DeLorme. ISBN 978-1946494047.
  13. ↑ "Natural Features & Ecosystems". US National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/naturalfeaturesandecosystems.htm. 
  14. ↑ "Clingmans Dome". National Park Service. December 12, 2022. http://www.nps.gov/grsm/planyourvisit/clingmansdome.htm. 
  15. ↑ "East's Finest Peak Becomes Property Of People Of America". The Knoxville News-Sentinel: p. 1. April 29, 1931. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/93627858/easts-finest-peak-becomes-property-of/. 
  16. ↑ Moore 1988, p. 32.
  17. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 10-17.
  18. ↑ Moore 1988, pp. 40-44.
  19. ↑ "USDA Interactive Plant Hardiness Map". United States Department of Agriculture. https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/InteractiveMap.aspx. 
  20. ↑ PRISM Climate Group. "Time Series Values for Individual Locations". Oregon State University. http://prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/. 
  21. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee – Monthly weather forecast and Climate data". Weather Atlas. https://www.weather-us.com/en/tennessee-usa/great-smoky-mountains-national-park-climate. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Gaffin, David M.; Hotz, David G. (2000). "A Precipitation and Flood Climatology with Synoptic Features of Heavy Rainfall across the Southern Appalachian Mountains". National Weather Digest 24 (3): 3–15. http://nwafiles.nwas.org/digest/papers/2000/Vol24No3/Pg3-Gaffin.pdf. Retrieved 6 October 2019. 
  23. ↑ Gaffin, David M. (2012). Southern Appalachian Weather. Vantage Press. ISBN 978-0-533-16528-5. OCLC 811558967. 
  24. ↑ Template:Cite tech report
  25. ↑ David M. Gaffin. "What are mountain waves?". Morristown, Tennessee: National Weather Service. https://www.weather.gov/mrx/mountainwaves. 
  26. ↑ Gaffin, David M. (2009). "On High Winds and Foehn Warming Associated with Mountain-Wave Events in the Western Foothills of the Southern Appalachian Mountains". Weather and Forecasting 24 (1): 53–75. doi:10.1175/2008WAF2007096.1. Bibcode: 2009WtFor..24...53G. 
  27. ↑ Shadbolt, Ryan; Charney, Joseph; Fromm, Hannah (2019). "A mesoscale simulation of a mountain wave wind event associated with the Chimney Tops 2 fire (2016)". Special Symposium on Mesoscale Meteorological Extremes: Understanding, Prediction, and Projection. American Meteorological Society. https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/353193. Retrieved 3 April 2020. 
  28. ↑ David Gaffin (2012). "The Influence of Terrain during the 27 April 2011 Super Tornado Outbreak and 5 July 2012 Derecho around the Great Smoky Mountains National Park". 26th Conference on Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. pp. 25 pp. https://ams.confex.com/ams/26SLS/webprogram/Paper220492.html. Retrieved 10 April 2020. 
  29. ↑ Feanny, Camille (24 June 2004). "Smokies top list of most polluted parks". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/06/24/parks.pollution/. 
  30. ↑ "New Report Ranks Five Most-Polluted National Parks". National Parks Conservation Association. 24 June 2004. http://www.npca.org/media_center/press_releases/2004/page-27600358.html. 
  31. ↑ Wenzler, Mark (12 March 2013). "New Report: Air Quality in the Smokies Is Headed in the Right Direction" (in en). National Parks Conservation Association. https://www.npca.org/articles/190-new-report-air-quality-in-the-smokies-is-headed-in-the-right-direction. 
  32. ↑ Dimas, Jennifer (7 March 2013). "Reducing Pollution at National Parks: Colorado State University Scientists Demonstrate Significant Improvements in Air Quality, Visibility" (in en). News & Information. Department of Public Relations, Colorado State University. http://www.news.colostate.edu/Release/6715. 
  33. ↑ Brill, David. "Word from the Smokies: A brief history of air quality monitoring" (in en-US). https://www.citizen-times.com/story/news/local/2022/01/29/word-smokies-brief-history-air-quality-monitoring/9232724002/. 
  34. ↑ "Air quality report reveals good news for N.C." (in en-gb). Smoky Mountain News (Waynesville, North Carolina). November 22, 2023. https://smokymountainnews.com/outdoors/item/36807-air-quality-report-reveals-good-news-for-n-c. 
  35. ↑ Linzey 2008, p. 30.
  36. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains National Park: World Heritage Site". Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. March 29, 2021. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/great-smoky-mountains-national-park-world-heritage-site.htm. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Davis, Mary Byrd (January 23, 2008). "Old Growth in the East: A Survey. North Carolina". http://www.primalnature.org/ogeast/nc.pdf. 
  38. ↑ Halvarson, Eric (October 11, 2019). "Giants of the Smokies: Old-growth forest at Albright Grove". Boone, North Carolina: Appalachian Voices. https://appvoices.org/2019/10/11/giants-of-the-smokies/. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Wildflowers". Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. January 27, 2020. https://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/nature/wildflowers.htm. 
  40. ↑ Linzey 2008, p. 53-54.
  41. ↑ Linzey 2008, pp. 30, 55.
  42. ↑ Linzey 2008, p. 88.
  43. ↑ Linzey 2008, p. 90.
  44. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 21-23.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Linzey 2008, pp. 69-70.
  46. ↑ Davis, Marti (July 9, 2006). "Serene virgin forest gives respite from July heat". The Knoxville News-Sentinel. Archived from the original on March 3, 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070303193809/http://trails.gosmokies.com/results.cfm?id=81. 
  47. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 24-25.
  48. ↑ Linzey 2008, pp. 216-217.
  49. ↑ Kays, Holly (May 26, 2021). "Restoring a giant: EBCI partners to resurrect the chestnut tree". Smoky Mountain News (Waynesville, North Carolina). https://smokymountainnews.com/archives/item/31446-restoring-a-giant-ebci-partners-to-resurrect-the-chestnut-tree. 
  50. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 25-26.
  51. ↑ Houk, 28.
  52. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 28-29.
  53. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, p. 30.
  54. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 50-53.
  55. ↑ Houk & Collier 1993, pp. 50, 54-55.
  56. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains National Park". https://www.usgs.gov/science-support/osqi/yes/national-parks/great-smoky-mountains-national-park. 
  57. ↑ "Black Bears - Great Smoky Mountains National Park". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/black-bears.htm. 
  58. ↑ "Elk - Great Smoky Mountains National Park" (in en). National Park Service. July 21, 2015. https://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/nature/elk.htm. 
  59. ↑ Simbeck, Damien (1990). Distribution of the Fishes of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. p. 10. https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3892&context=utk_gradthes. Retrieved 21 July 2020. 
  60. ↑ "Visitation Numbers (U.S. National Park Service)" (in en). https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/visitation-numbers.htm. 
  61. ↑ "Why No Entrance Fee? - Great Smoky Mountains National Park (U.S. National Park Service)" (in en). https://www.nps.gov/grsm/planyourvisit/whynoentrancefee.htm. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Great Smoky Mountains National Park (2023). Park Map (PDF) (Map) (2024 ed.). Not given. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
  63. ↑ Great Smoky Mountains National Park (2023). Map of Region (PDF) (Map) (2024 ed.). Not given. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
  64. ↑ "Great Smoky Mountains: Recreational Opportunities". National Park Service. 2005. http://www.nps.gov/grsm/gsmsite/justforfun.html. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Wise 2014, pp. 223-226.
  66. ↑ "The Appalachian Trail south of Roan Mountain". Appalachian Long Distance Hikers Association. http://www.aldha.org/companyn/ga-tn10.pdf. Retrieved January 24, 2024. 
  67. ↑ Wise 2014, pp. 52-55.
  68. ↑ Wise, Kenneth; Ronald H. Petersen (1998). A Natural History of Mount Le Conte. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press. p. 38. ISBN 1-57233-010-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=K4_OSlDQUK0C. 
  69. ↑ Glaser, Susan (September 15, 2022). "Overnighting at LeConte Lodge, the only inn inside Great Smoky Mountains National Park (but first, you have to get there)". Cleveland.com (Brooklyn, Ohio). https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2022/09/overnighting-at-leconte-lodge-the-only-inn-inside-great-smoky-mountains-national-park-but-first-you-have-to-get-there.html. 
  70. ↑ "LeConte Lodge closes for season". Elizabethton Star. Associated Press: p. 3. December 1, 2005. https://www.newspapers.com/article/elizabethton-star-leconte-lodge-closes-f/139438587/. 
  71. ↑ Wise 2014, pp. 45-50.
  72. ↑ "National Register of Historic Places - Clingmans Dome Observation Tower". Raleigh: North Carolina State Historic Preservation Office. August 15, 2012. https://files.nc.gov/ncdcr/nr/SW0119.pdf. 
  73. ↑ "Firefly Event Lottery, Great Smoky Mountains National Park" (in en). https://www.recreation.gov/ticket/facility/233374. 
  74. ↑ "Synchronous Fireflies - Great Smoky Mountains National Park (U.S. National Park Service)" (in en). National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/nature/fireflies.htm. 
  75. ↑ Pierce, Daniel S. (2000). The Great Smokies: From Natural Habitat to National Park (1st ed.). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 1-57233-076-7. OCLC 42619715. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Wuerthner, George (2003). Great Smoky Mountains: a Visitor's Companion (1st ed.). Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. pp. 32–41. ISBN 0-8117-2498-0. 
  77. ↑ "Images of the Great Smoky Mountains". http://dlc.lib.utk.edu/thompson/thompson_main.htm. 
  78. ↑ "Ben W. Hooper". tennesseeencyclopedia.net. http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=649. 
  79. ↑ MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory - UNESCO
  80. ↑ "Wide-ranging celebration to honor 75th anniversary of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park". http://www.knoxnews.com/news/wide-ranging-celebration-to-honor-75th-anniversary-of-the-great-smoky-mountains-national-park-ep-409-359370811.html. 
  81. ↑ "Death toll in Sevier County still rising". CNN. 5 December 2016. http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/05/us/tennessee-gatlinburg-wildfires/index.html. 
  82. ↑
  83. ↑ "Cassius Cash, the Smokies' First African-American Superintendent, Aims to Help the Park Evolve". 14 April 2016. https://www.knoxmercury.com/2016/04/13/cassius-cash-smokies-first-african-american-superintendent-aims-help-park-evolve/. 
  84. ↑ "U.S. Postal Service Reveals Stamps for 2023". United States Postal Service. October 24, 2022. https://about.usps.com/newsroom/national-releases/2022/1024-usps-reveals-stamps-for-2023.htm. 

Bibliography

External links



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