Earth:Quasi-state

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Short description: Political entity
Map of the British Empire under Queen Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to the Crown.
A map of the Middle East showing areas controlled by ISIL as of May 2015: a number of major cities in northern Syria and Iraq, and corridors connecting them.
Maximum extent of the territory of the Islamic State (frequently described as a proto-state) in Iraq and Syria, on 21 May 2015.[1]

A quasi-state (some times referred to as state-like entity[2] or formatively a proto-state[3][2]) is a political entity that does not represent a fully institutionalised or autonomous sovereign state.[4]

The precise definition of quasi-state in political literature fluctuates depending on the context in which it is used. It has been used by some modern scholars to describe the self-governing British colonies and dependencies that exercised a form of home rule but remained crucial parts of the British Empire and subject firstly to the metropole's administration.[5][6] Similarly, the Republics of the Soviet Union, which represented administrative units with their own respective national distinctions, have also been described as quasi-states.[4]

In the 21st century usage, the term quasi-state has most often been evoked in reference to militant secessionist groups who claim, and exercise some form of territorial control over, a specific region, but which lack institutional cohesion.[5][failed verification (See discussion.)] Such quasi-states include the Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War[5] and Azawad during the 2012 Tuareg rebellion.[7] The Islamic State is also widely held to be an example of a modern quasi-state or proto-state.[8][2][9][10]

History

Tuareg rebels in the short-lived proto-state of Azawad.

The term "proto-state" has been used in reference to contexts as far back as Ancient Greece , to refer to the phenomenon that the formation of a large and cohesive nation would often be preceded by very small and loose forms of statehood.[11] For instance, historical sociologist Garry Runciman describes the evolution of social organisation in the Greek Dark Ages from statelessness, to what he calls semistates based on patriarchal domination but lacking inherent potential to achieve the requirements for statehood, sometimes transitioning into protostates with governmental roles able to maintain themselves generationally, which could evolve into larger and more centralised entities fulfilling the requirements of statehood by 700 BC in the archaic period.[11][12]

Most ancient proto-states were the product of tribal societies, consisting of relatively short-lived confederations of communities that united under a single warlord or chieftain endowed with symbolic authority and military rank.[11] These were not considered sovereign states since they rarely achieved any degree of institutional permanence and authority was often exercised over a mobile people rather than measurable territory.[11] Loose confederacies of this nature were the primary means of embracing a common statehood by people in many regions, such as the Central Asian steppes, throughout ancient history.[13]

Proto-states proliferated in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, likely as a result of a trend towards political decentralisation following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the adoption of feudalism.[14] While theoretically owing allegiance to a single monarch under the feudal system, many lesser nobles administered their own fiefs as miniature "states within states" that were independent of each other.[15] This practice was especially notable with regards to large, decentralised political entities such as the Holy Roman Empire, that incorporated many autonomous and semi-autonomous proto-states.[16]

Following the Age of Discovery, the emergence of European colonialism resulted in the formation of colonial proto-states in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.[17] A few colonies were given the unique status of protectorates, which were effectively controlled by the metropole but retained limited ability to administer themselves, self-governing colonies, dominions, and dependencies.[5] These were distinct administrative units that each fulfilled many of the functions of a state without actually exercising full sovereignty or independence.[17] Colonies without a sub-national home rule status, on the other hand, were considered administrative extensions of the colonising power rather than true proto-states.[18] Colonial proto-states later served as the basis for a number of modern nation states, particularly on the Asian and African continents.[17]

During the twentieth century, some proto-states existed as not only distinct administrative units, but their own theoretically self-governing republics joined to each other in a political union such as the socialist federal systems observed in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union.[5][4][19]

Territory controlled by the Anti-Fascist Council of Yugoslavia, which established its own proto-state in 1942

Another form of proto-state that has become especially common since the end of World War II[citation needed] is established through the unconstitutional seizure of territory by an insurgent or militant group that proceeds to assume the role of a de facto government.[8] Although denied recognition and bereft of civil institutions, insurgent proto-states may engage in external trade, provide social services, and even undertake limited diplomatic activity.[20] These proto-states are usually formed by movements drawn from geographically concentrated ethnic or religious minorities, and are thus a common feature of inter-ethnic civil conflicts.[21] This is often due to the inclinations of an internal cultural identity group seeking to reject the legitimacy of a sovereign state's political order, and create its own enclave where it is free to live under its own sphere of laws, social mores, and ordering.[21] Since the 1980s a special kind of insurgent statehood has emerged in form of the "Jihadi proto-state", as the Islamist concept of statehood is extremely flexible. For instance, a Jihadi emirate can be simply understood as a territory or group ruled by an emir; accordingly, it might rule a significant area or just a neighborhood. Regardless of its extent, the assumption of statehood provides Jihadi militants with important internal legitimacy and cementes their self-identification as frontline society opposed to certain enemies.[8]

The accumulation of territory by an insurgent force to form a sub-national geopolitical system and eventually, a proto-state, was a calculated process in China during the Chinese Civil War that set a precedent for many similar attempts throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.[22] Proto-states established as a result of civil conflict typically exist in a perpetual state of warfare and their wealth and populations may be limited accordingly.[23] One of the most prominent examples of a wartime proto-state in the twenty-first century is the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant,[24][25][26] that maintained its own administrative bureaucracy and imposed taxes.[27]

Theoretical basis

The definition of a proto-state is not concise, and has been confused by the interchangeable use of the terms state, country, and nation to describe a given territory.[28] The term proto-state is preferred to "proto-nation" in an academic context, however, since some authorities also use nation to denote a social, ethnic, or cultural group capable of forming its own state.[28]

A proto-state does not meet the four essential criteria for statehood as elaborated upon in the declarative theory of statehood of the 1933 Montevideo Convention: a permanent population, a defined territory, a government with its own institutions, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.[28] A proto-state is not necessarily synonymous with a state with limited recognition that otherwise has all the hallmarks of a fully functioning sovereign state, such as Rhodesia or the Republic of China, also known as Taiwan.[28] However, proto-states frequently go unrecognised since a state actor that recognises a proto-state does so in violation of another state actor's external sovereignty.[29] If full diplomatic recognition is extended to a proto-state and embassies exchanged, it is defined as a sovereign state in its own right and may no longer be classified as a proto-state.[29]

Territory of Croatia controlled by the Republic of Serbian Krajina proto-state 1991–1995.

Throughout modern history, partially autonomous regions of larger recognised states, especially those based on a historical precedent or ethnic and cultural distinctiveness that places them apart from those who dominate the state as a whole, have been considered proto-states.[5] Home rule generates a sub-national institutional structure that may justifiably be defined as a proto-state.[30] When a rebellion or insurrection seizes control and begins to establish some semblance of administration in regions within national territories under its effective rule, it has also metamorphosed into a proto-state.[31] These wartime proto-states, sometimes known as insurgent states, may eventually transform the structure of a state altogether, or demarcate their own autonomous political spaces.[31] While not a new phenomenon, the modern formation of a proto-states in territory held by a militant non-state entity was popularised by Mao Zedong during the Chinese Civil War, and the national liberation movements worldwide that adopted his military philosophies.[22] The rise of an insurgent proto-state was sometimes also an indirect consequence of a movement adopting Che Guevara's foco theory of guerrilla warfare.[22]

Secessionist proto-states are likeliest to form in preexisting states that lack secure boundaries, a concise and well-defined body of citizens, or a single sovereign power with a monopoly on the legitimate use of military force.[32] They may be created as a result of putsches, insurrections, separatist political campaigns, foreign intervention, sectarian violence, civil war, and even the bloodless dissolution or division of the state.[32]

Proto-states can be important regional players, as their existence affects the options available to state actors, either as potential allies or as impediments to their political or economic policy articulations.[31]

List of proto-states

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Constituent proto-states

Current

Proto-state Parent state Achieved statehood Since Source
 Adygea  Russia Russian Federation 1991 [5]
  1. REDIRECT Template:Country data Åland Islands
  Finland No [5][33][additional citation(s) needed]
 Altai Republic  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Aruba  Netherlands No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
Ashanti  Ghana No [34][additional citation(s) needed]
 Azad Kashmir  Pakistan No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Azores  Portugal No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Bashkortostan  Russia Russian Federation 1990 [5]
 British Virgin Islands  United Kingdom No 1960 [5]
 Bougainville  Papua New Guinea De facto 2001 [5]
 Buryatia  Russia Russian Federation 1990 [5]
 Canary Islands  Spain No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Catalonia  Spain No 1978 [5]
 Cayman Islands  United Kingdom No 1962 [5]
 Chin State  Myanmar No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Christmas Island  Australia No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Chuvashia  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Cook Islands  New Zealand De jure 1888 [5]
 Corsica  France No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Curaçao  Netherlands No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Dagestan  Russia Russian Federation 1991 [5]
 Easter Island  Chile No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Euskadi  Spain No 1978 [5]
 Falkland Islands  United Kingdom No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Faroe Islands  Denmark No 1948 [5]
 Flanders  Belgium No [5] [additional citation(s) needed]
 French Polynesia  France No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Galicia  Spain No 1978 [5]
 Greenland  Denmark No 1816 [5]
 Guam  United States No 1816 [5]
 Guernsey  United Kingdom No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
Indian reservations  United States De jure 1658 [5]
Indigenous territory (Brazil)  Brazil No 1850[35]
 Ingushetia  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Iraqi Kurdistan  Iraq No 1991 [36]
 Isle of Man  United Kingdom De jure 1828 [5]
 Jersey  United Kingdom De jure 1204 [5]
Jewish Autonomous Oblast  Russia Russian Federation 1934
 Kabardino-Balkaria  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Kachin State  Myanmar No 1949 [5]
 Kalmykia  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Karachay-Cherkessia  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Karelia  Russia Russian Federation 1991 [5]
 Kayah State  Myanmar No 1949 [5]
 Kayin State  Myanmar No 1949 [5]
 Khakassia  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Komi Republic  Russia Russian Federation 1996 [5]
 Madeira  Portugal No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Mari El  Russia Russian Federation 1990 [5]
 Marquesas Islands  France No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Montserrat  United Kingdom No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Mon State  Myanmar No 1949 [5]
 Mordovia  Russia Russian Federation 1994 [5]
 New Caledonia  France No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Northern Marianas  United States No 1899 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 North Ossetia-Alania  Russia Russian Federation 1995 [5]
 Nunavut  Canada No 1999 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Puerto Rico  United States No 1816 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Puntland  Somalia No 1998 [37]
 Quebec  Canada No 1816 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Saint Helena  United Kingdom No 1834 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Sakha Republic  Russia Russian Federation 1991 [5]
 Shan State  Myanmar No 1949 [5]
 Sint Maarten  Netherlands No 2010 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
Template:Country data South Tyrol  Italy No 1926 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
  Svalbard  Norway No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Tatarstan  Russia Russian Federation 1990 [5]
 Temotu  Solomon Islands No [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Turks and Caicos  United Kingdom No 1973 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Tuva  Russia Russian Federation 1992 [5]
 Udmurtia  Russia Russian Federation 1990 [5]
 United States Virgin Islands  United States No 1816 [5][additional citation(s) needed]
 Wallonia  Belgium No 1970 [5]
[[File:|23x15px|border |alt=|link=]] Wa State  Myanmar De facto 2010 [38][39]
 Zanzibar  Tanzania No 1964 [5]

Former

Proto-state Parent state Achieved statehood Dates Source
 Adjara  Georgia No 1921–2004 [5]
Template:Country data Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic Template:Country data Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1922–1991
Artsakh  Azerbaijan De facto 1991-2023
 Aruba  Netherlands No [5]
Template:Country data Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic Template:Country data Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1922–1991
 Bophuthatswana  South Africa De jure 1977–1994 [40]
Bosnia-Herzegovina  Yugoslavia Yes 1943–1992 [19]
 Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic  Russian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1920–1991
 Ciskei  South Africa De jure 1981–1994 [40]
Croatia  Yugoslavia Yes 1943–1991 [19]
Carpatho-Ukraine Carpathian Ruthenia  Czechoslovakia De facto 1938–1939
 Czech Socialist Republic  Czechoslovakia Yes 1969–1993 [32]
 East Caprivi  South Africa No 1972–1989 [40]
Template:Country data Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1940–1941, 1944–1991
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic  Finland No 1918
Flag of the Repubblica Romana (1798).svg Free State of Bottleneck  Prussia,  Weimar Republic No 1919-1923
Wappen Schwarzenberg Erzgebirge.svg
Free Republic of Schwarzenberg 		Template:Country data Soviet occupation zone Soviet occupation zone of Germany De facto 1945
Ukraine Galician Ruthenians  Austria-Hungary De facto 1848–1918
 Gagauzia  Moldova No 1991–1994 [5]
 Gazankulu  South Africa No 1971–1994 [40]
Template:Country data Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic Template:Country data Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1922–1991
India Jammu and Kashmir  India No 1921–2019 [5]
 Hereroland  South Africa No 1970–1989 [40]
 KaNgwane  South Africa No 1972–1994 [40]
Republic of Karelia Karelian ASSR  Russian SFSR,  Soviet Union union republic 1923–1940
Template:Country data Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union No 1940–1956
 Kavangoland  South Africa No 1973–1989 [40]
Template:Country data Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1936–1991
Template:Country data Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1936–1991
 KwaNdebele  South Africa No 1981–1994 [40]
 KwaZulu  South Africa No 1981–1994 [40]
Template:Country data Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1940–1941, 1944–1991
 Lebowa  South Africa No 1972–1994 [40]
Template:Country data Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1940–1941, 1944–1990/1991
Macedonia  Yugoslavia Yes 1945–1991 [19]
Montenegro  Yugoslavia,  Serbia and Montenegro Yes 1945–2006 [19]
Moldova Moldavian ASSR  Ukrainian SSR,  Soviet Union union republic 1924–1940
 Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1940–1991
 Ovamboland  South Africa No 1973–1989 [40]
 QwaQwa  South Africa No 1974–1994 [40]
 Russian SFSR  Soviet Union Yes 1917–1991 [4]
Serbia  Yugoslavia,  Serbia and Montenegro Yes 1945–2006 [19]
Singapore Singapore  Malaysia Yes 1963–1965 [5]
 Slovak Socialist Republic  Czechoslovakia Yes 1969–1993 [32]
Slovenia  Yugoslavia Yes 1945–1991 [19]
South Africa South West Africa (Namibia)  South Africa Yes 1915–1990 [41]
South Sudan Southern Sudan  Sudan Yes 2005–2011 [42]
 Transkei  South Africa De jure 1976–1994 [40]
 Trucial States  United Kingdom Yes 1820–1971 [43]
Template:Country data Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1929–1991
Turkestan ASSR  Russian SFSR No 1918–1924 [44]
Template:Country data Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1925–1991
 Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets  Russian SFSR No 1917–1918
 Ukrainian Soviet Republic  Russian SFSR No 1918
 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic  Russian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1919–1991 [45]
Template:Country data Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union Yes 1924–1991
 Venda  South Africa De jure 1979–1994 [40]

Secessionist, insurgent, and self-proclaimed autonomous proto-states

Current

Proto-state Parent state Achieved statehood Since Source
Abkhazia  Georgia De facto 1992
Al-Qaeda  Mali
 Somalia		 De facto 2006
Al-Shabaab  Somalia No 2009 [46]
Allied Democratic Forces  Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Uganda		 No 1996 [47]
Ambazonia  Cameroon No 2017
Ansar al-Sharia (Yemen)  Yemen No 2011 [46]
Flag of Jihad.svg Ansar al-Sunna  Mozambique No 2020
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria  Syria Partial 2012 [48]
Cabinda  Angola No 1975
Central African Republic Coalition of Patriots for Change  Central African Republic No 2020
Afghanistan Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Template:Country data Islamic State of Afghanistan Yes 1994
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan  Pakistan No 2006 [46]
Kachin  Myanmar No 1961
Khatumo  Somalia No 2012
Kosovo Kosovo  Serbia De facto 2008
Mai-Mai  Democratic Republic of the Congo No 2015
Flag of the NDAA.png National Democratic Alliance Army  Myanmar No 1989
National Resistance Front of Afghanistan  Afghanistan No 2021
Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated  Democratic Republic of the Congo No 2015
 Northern Cyprus  Cyprus De facto 1974
Oromo Liberation Front  Ethiopia No 1973
Template:Country data Syrian Opposition Revolutionary Commando Army  Syria No 2016
 Sahrawi Republic  Morocco Partial 1976 [49]
State of Palestine State of Palestine  Israel De facto 1988
Somaliland  Somalia De facto 1991
South Ossetia  Georgia De facto 1991
Southern Transitional Council  Yemen De facto 2017
Sudan Revolutionary Front  Sudan No 2011
Template:Country data Syrian Opposition Syrian Interim Government  Syria No 2013
Syrian Salvation Government  Syria No 2017
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan  Pakistan No 2002 [46]
Tigray People's Liberation Front  Ethiopia Partial 2020
Transnistria  Moldova De facto 1990
United Wa State Army flag.png United Wa State Army  Myanmar No 1989
West Papua  Indonesia No 1971

Former

Proto-state Parent state Achieved statehood Dates Source
Al-Nusra Front  Syria No 2012–2017 [50]
Ansar al-Islam  Iraq No 2001–2003 [46]
Angola  Portugal Yes 1961–1975
Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)  Libya No 2014–2017 [50]
Ansar Dine  Mali No 2012–2013 [50]
 Donetsk People's Republic and  Luhansk People's Republic  Ukraine De facto 2014–2022 [51]
Russia Armed Forces of South Russia  Russia No 1919–1920 [52]
 Azawad  Mali De facto 2012–2013 [7]
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Boko Haram  Nigeria
 Cameroon		 No 2013–2015 [50]
 Carpatho-Ukraine  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary De facto 1938–1939
Template:Country data Chechen Republic of Ichkeria  Russia De facto 1991–2000 [29]
 Chinese Soviet Republic Taiwan China No 1931–1937 [22]
Communist China Taiwan China Yes 1927–1949 [22]
Dar al-Kuti  Central African Republic De facto 2015–2021 [53]
Dubrovnik Republic Croatia Croatia No 1991–1992 [5]
Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia Croatia Croatia No 1995–1998 [5]
FARC  Colombia No 1964–2017 [54]
Fatah al-Islam  Lebanon No 2007 [46]
Fujian China China No 1933–1934
Armed Islamic Group of Algeria  Algeria No 1993–1995 [46]
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia Herzeg-Bosnia Template:Country data Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina No 1991–1996 [5]
 Hyderabad State  India De facto 1947–1948 [5]
Idel-Ural State Russia Russia No 1917–1918 [55]
Republic of Ireland Irish Republic  United Kingdom Yes 1919–1922 [56]
Islamic Emirate of Kunar  Republic of Afghanistan No 1989–1991 [46]
Afghanistan Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Template:Country data Islamic State of Afghanistan De facto 1996–2001
Islamic Republic of Imbaba  Egypt No 1989–1992 [46]
Jamiat-e Islami  Democratic Republic of Afghanistan No 1982–1989 [57]
Republic of Kosova  FR Yugoslavia No 1992–1999 [58]
Kharkiv People's Republic Ukraine Ukraine No 2014 [59]
 Jiangxi China China No 1931–1937 [22]
 Jubaland  Somalia No 1998–2001 [60]
Junbish-e Milli  Republic of Afghanistan (until April 28)
Template:Country data Islamic State of Afghanistan (from April 28)		 No 1992–1997 [61]
Liberated Yugoslavia  Independent State of Croatia
Occupied Serbia		 Yes 1942–1945 [62]
Template:Country data Mongolian People's Republic China China Yes 1911–1946
 Mozambique  Portugal Yes 1964–1974 [note 1]
Revolutionary Vietnam  South Vietnam No 1969–1976

[49]

Republika Srpska Template:Country data Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina No 1991–1995 [5]
Red Spears' rebel area in Dengzhou China No 1929 [63]
Serbian Krajina  Croatia No 1991–1995 [64]
Sudetenland  Czechoslovakia No 1918–1938 [65]
Liberia "Taylorland" or Greater Liberia  Liberia No 1990–1995/97 [note 2]
Tamil Eelam  Sri Lanka No 1983–2009 [54][68][69]
Tibet Tibet China China No 1912–1951 [note 3]
 Ukrainian National Government  Soviet Union,  Nazi Germany No 1941
 Ukrainian People's Republic  Russian Republic,  Russian SFSR Yes 1917–1921
 United States  Great Britain Yes 1776–1783
 West Ukrainian People's Republic  Austria-Hungary,  Poland No 1918–1919
Western Bosnia Template:Country data Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina No 1993–1995 [5]
Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities  Mexico De facto 1994–2023
 Zaporozhian Sich Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Yes 16th century–1649 [70]

See also

Notes and references

Annotations

  1. ↑ The erosion of Portuguese military control over northern Mozambique during the Mozambican War of Independence allowed local guerrillas to establish a proto-state there, which survived until the war ended in 1974. Home to about a million people, the miniature insurgent proto-state was managed by FRELIMO's civilian wing and was able to provide administrative services, open trade relations with Tanzania, and even supervise the construction of its own schools and hospitals with foreign aid.[20]
  2. ↑ In course of the First Liberian Civil War, the Liberian central government effectively collapsed, allowing warlords to establish their own fiefs. One of the most powerful rebel leaders in Liberia, Charles Taylor, set up his own domain in a way resembling an actual state: He reorganised his militia into a military-like organisation (split into Army, Marines, Navy, and Executive Mansion Guard), established his de facto capital at Gbarnga, and created a civilian government and justice system under his control that were supposed to enforce law and order. The area under his control was commonly called "Taylorland" or "Greater Liberia" and even became somewhat stable and peaceful until it largely disintegrated in 1994/5 as result of attacks by rival militias. In the end, however, Taylor won the civil war and was elected President of Liberia, with his regime becoming the new central government.[66][67]
  3. ↑ See Tibetan sovereignty debate

References

  1. ↑ Fairfield, Hannah; Wallace, Tim; Watkins, Derek (21 May 2015). "How ISIS Expands". The New York Times (New York City). https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/05/21/world/middleeast/how-isis-expands.html. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Quasi-State", "A term sometimes used to describe entities with many, but not all, the criteria of statehood . . . which are nonetheless possessed of a measure of international personality. . . . a term of international relations, and certainly not of international law, it connotes former colonies . . ." , Wikidata Q105755921
  3. ↑ "How the Islamic State Declared War on the World". https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/11/16/how-the-islamic-state-declared-war-on-the-world-actual-state/. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Hahn, Gordon (2002). Russia's Revolution from Above, 1985-2000: Reform, Transition, and Revolution in the Fall of the Soviet Communist Regime. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. p. 527. ISBN 978-0765800497. 
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 5.42 5.43 5.44 5.45 5.46 5.47 5.48 5.49 5.50 5.51 5.52 5.53 5.54 5.55 5.56 5.57 5.58 5.59 5.60 5.61 5.62 5.63 5.64 5.65 5.66 5.67 5.68 5.69 5.70 5.71 5.72 5.73 5.74 5.75 5.76 5.77 5.78 5.79 5.80 5.81 5.82 5.83 5.84 5.85 Griffiths, Ryan (2016). Age of Secession: The International and Domestic Determinants of State Birth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–102, 213–242. ISBN 978-1107161627. https://books.google.com/books?id=Hr1GDQAAQBAJ. 
  6. ↑ Jackson, Robert H. (1991). Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–22. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511559020. ISBN 978-0-521-44783-6. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/quasistates/D7A4579413072EFCA01AE8075669FE57. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Alvarado, David (May 2012). "Independent Azawad: Tuaregs, Jihadists, and an Uncertain Future for Mali". Barcelona: Barcelona Center for International Affairs. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/142674/NOTES%2054_ALVARADO_english.pdf. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Lia (2015), pp. 31–32.
  9. ↑ "The caliphate cracks". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21646750-though-islamic-state-still-spreading-terror-its-weaknesses-are-becoming-apparent. 
  10. ↑ "The Islamic State: More than a Terrorist Group?". 3 April 2015. http://www.e-ir.info/2015/04/03/the-islamic-state-more-than-a-terrorist-group/. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian (2009). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 5–6, 132. ISBN 978-0195371581. https://books.google.com/books?id=u8QTDAAAQBAJ&q=The+Dynamics+of+Ancient+Empires+proto-state&pg=PT150. 
  12. ↑ Runciman, W. G. (July 1982). "Origins of States: The Case of Archaic 351–377 Greece" (in en). Comparative Studies in Society and History 24 (3): 351–377. doi:10.1017/S0010417500010045. ISSN 0010-4175. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0010417500010045/type/journal_article. 
  13. ↑ Kim, Hyun Jin (2015). The Huns. Abingdon: Routledge Books. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-1138841758. 
  14. ↑ Borza, Eugene (1992). In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 238–240. ISBN 978-0691008806. 
  15. ↑ Duverger, Maurice (1972). The Study of Politics. Surrey: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Publishers. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-0690790214. https://archive.org/details/studyofpolitics0000duve/page/144. 
  16. ↑ Beattie, Andrew (2011). The Danube: A Cultural History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0199768356. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Abernethy, David (2002). The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415-1980. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN 978-0300093148. 
  18. ↑ Morier-Genoud, Eric (2012). Sure Road? Nationalisms in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 2. ISBN 978-9004222618. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 Kostovicova, Denisa (2005). Kosovo: The Politics of Identity and Space. New York: Routledge Books. pp. 5–7. ISBN 978-0415348065. https://archive.org/details/kosovopoliticsid00kost. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Sellström, Tor (2002). Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2 : Solidarity and assistance, 1970–1994. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-91-7106-448-6. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nai:diva-204. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Christian, Patrick James (2011). A Combat Advisor's Guide to Tribal Engagement: History, Law and War as Operational Elements. Boca Raton: Universal Publishers. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1599428161. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 McColl, R. W. (2005). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Volume 1. New York: Facts on File, Incorporated. pp. 397–398, 466. ISBN 978-0-8160-5786-3. 
  23. ↑ Torreblanca, José Ignacio (12 July 2010). "Estados-embrión" (in es). El País. http://elpais.com/diario/2010/07/12/internacional/1278885612_850215.html. 
  24. ↑ Segurado, Nacho (16 April 2015). "¿Por qué Estado Islámico le está ganando la partida a los herederos de Bin Laden?" (in es). 20 minutos. http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/2427742/0/estado-islamico/claves-califato/terrorismo-yihadista/. 
  25. ↑ Rengel, Carmen (5 April 2015). "Javier Martín: "El Estado Islámico tiene espíritu de gobernar y permanecer"" (in es). http://www.huffingtonpost.es/2015/04/05/javier-martin-estado-islamico_n_6862082.html. 
  26. ↑ Keatinge, Tom (2016-03-08). "Islamic State: The struggle to stay rich - BBC News" (in en-GB). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35585298. 
  27. ↑ Martín Rodríguez, Javier (2015) (in es). Estado Islámico. Geopolítica del Caos (3rd ed.). Madrid, Spain: Los Libros de la Catarata. p. 15. ISBN 978-84-9097-054-6. http://www.catarata.org/libro/mostrar/id/1057. Retrieved 2016-04-22. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Middleton, Nick (2015). An Atlas of Countries That Don't Exist: A Compendium of Fifty Unrecognized and Largely Unnoticed States. London: Macmillan Publishers. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-1447295273. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Coggins, Bridget (2014). Power Politics and State Formation in the Twentieth Century: The Dynamics of Recognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–64, 173. ISBN 978-1107047358. 
  30. ↑ Augusteijn, Joost (2002). The Irish Revolution, 1913-1923. Basingstoke: Palgrave. p. 13. ISBN 978-0333982266. https://archive.org/details/irishrevolution00augu. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Araoye, Ademola (2013). Okome, Mojubaolu. ed. Contesting the Nigerian State: Civil Society and the Contradictions of Self-Organization. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. p. 35. ISBN 978-1137324528. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Newton, Kenneth; Van Deth, Jan (2016). Foundations of Comparative Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 364–365. ISBN 978-1107582859. 
  33. ↑ "Euromosaic - Swedish in Finland". https://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/suec/an/e1/e1.html. 
  34. ↑ Roeder, Philip (2007). Where Nation-States Come From: Institutional Change in the Age of Nationalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0691134673. 
  35. ↑ "L0601-1850". http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l0601-1850.htm. 
  36. ↑ Dyer, Gwynne (2015). Don't Panic: ISIS, Terror and Today's Middle East. Toronto: Random House Canada. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-0345815866. 
  37. ↑ Palmer, Andrew (2014). The New Pirates: Modern Global Piracy from Somalia to the South China Sea. London: I.B. Tauris, Publishers. p. 74. ISBN 978-1848856332. 
  38. ↑ 29 December 2004, 佤帮双雄, Phoenix TV
  39. ↑ Steinmüller, Hans (2018). "Conscription by Capture in the Wa State of Myanmar: acquaintances, anonymity, patronage, and the rejection of mutuality". https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/161929578.pdf. 
  40. ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 Marx, Anthony (1998). Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0521585903. 
  41. ↑ Hague Academy of International Law (1978). Recueil des cours: Collected courses of the Hague Academy of International Law. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff and Noordhoff, Publishers. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-90-286-0759-0. 
  42. ↑ Suzuki, Eisuke (2015). Noortmann, Math; Reinisch, August; Ryngaert, Cedric. eds. Non-State Actors in International Law. Portland: Hart Publishing. p. 40. ISBN 978-1849465113. 
  43. ↑ Ulrichsen, Kristian Coates (2013). Dargin, Justin. ed. The Rise of the Global South: Philosophical, Geopolitical and Economic Trends of the 21st Century. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9814397803. 
  44. ↑ Reeves, Madeleine (2014). Border Work: Spatial Lives of the State in Rural Central Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0801477065. https://archive.org/details/borderworkspatia00reev. 
  45. ↑ Ryabchuk, Mykola (1994). "Between Civil Society and the New Etatism: Democracy in the Making and State Building in Ukraine". in Kennedy, Michael D.. Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-472-10556-6. "For Ukraine, even the formal declaration of the Ukrainian SSR, however puppet like, was extremely important. First, it somewhat legitimised the very existence of the Ukrainian state and nation, even if by an “inviolable” union with Russia. Second, it provided an opportunity to create certain state structure, establish state symbols, and even attain an only informal but, as it turned out, crucial membership in the United Nations. Third, the formal existence of the Ukrainian SSR as a distinct ethnic, territorial, and administrative entity with state like features objectively created a legitimate and psychological basis for the eventual formation of a political nation. It has proven much easier to change a nominal “sovereignty” to a real one than to build a state out of several provinces (gubernia) threatened by foreign intervention and civil war, as in 1917–20." 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 46.6 46.7 46.8 Lia (2015), p. 33.
  47. ↑ Daniel Fahey (19 February 2015). "New insights on Congo's Islamist rebels". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/02/19/new-insights-on-congos-islamist-rebels/. 
  48. ↑ Williams, Brian Glyn (2016-10-20) (in en). Counter Jihad: America's Military Experience in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812248678. https://books.google.com/books?id=_x82DQAAQBAJ&q=Rojava+%22proto-state%22&pg=PA300. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Domínguez, Jorge (1989). To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-0674893252. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Lia (2015), p. 34.
  51. ↑ Socor, Vladimir (2016). "Conserved Conflict: Russia's Pattern in Ukraine's East". in Iancu, Niculae; Fortuna, Andrei; Barna, Cristian et al.. Countering Hybrid Threats: Lessons Learned from Ukraine. Washington, DC: IOS Press. pp. 187–192. ISBN 978-1614996507. "Russia’s 2014 military intervention breached [Ukraine’s titles to sovereignty, territorial integrity and inviolability of its borders] de facto, but the Minsk armistice formalises that breach at the international level. Under the armistice, a formal restoration of Ukraine’s sovereignty and control of the external border in Donetsk-Luhansk is no longer a matter of title, right, or international law. Instead, that restoration becomes conditional on enshrining the Donetsk-Luhansk proto-state in Ukraine’s constitution and legitimising the Moscow-installed authorities there through elections. Moreover, the terms of that restoration are negotiable between Kyiv and Donetsk-Luhansk (i.e., Moscow) under the Minsk armistice." 
  52. ↑ Shambarov, V. The State and revolutions (Государство и революции). "Algoritm". Moscow, 2001 (in Russian)
  53. ↑ "Central African Republic rebels declare autonomous state in north". The Washington Post. 15 December 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/central-african-republic-rebels-declare-autonomous-state-in-north/2015/12/15/8efdd3a8-a380-11e5-ad3f-991ce3374e23_story.html. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Faure, Guy Olivier; Zartman, I. William (1997). Engaging Extremists: Trade-offs, Timing, and Diplomacy. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1601270740. 
  55. ↑ Roberts, Glenn (2007). Commissar and Mullah: Soviet-Muslim Policy from 1917 to 1924. Boca Raton: Universal Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1581123494. 
  56. ↑ Suzman, Mark (1999). Ethnic Nationalism and State Power: The Rise of Irish Nationalism, Afrikaner Nationalism and Zionism. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-0312220280. 
  57. ↑ Defence Journal. Ikram ul-Majeed Sehgal, 2006, Volume 9-10 Collected Issues 12(9)-12 (10) page 47.
  58. ↑ Statement of Albanian PM Sali Berisha during the recognition of the Republic of Kosovo, stating that this is based on a 1991 Albanian law, which recognised the Republic of Kosova
  59. ↑ "Ukraine Authorities Clear Kharkiv Building, Arrest Scores Of 'Separatists'". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. April 8, 2014. https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv-operation-ukraine-terrorism-separatist-arrests/25324984.html. 
  60. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Order
  61. ↑ "Rashid Dostum: The treacherous general". December 2001. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/rashid-dostum-the-treacherous-general-9224857.html. 
  62. ↑ Laqueur, Walter (1997). Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study. Piscataway, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. p. 218. ISBN 978-0765804068. 
  63. ↑ Bianco (2015), p. 6.
  64. ↑ Glaurdic, Josip (2011). The Hour of Europe: Western Powers and the Breakup of Yugoslavia. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0300166293. 
  65. ↑ Gilbert, Martin; Gott, Richard (1967). The Appeasers. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 
  66. ↑ Dwyer 2015, pp. 39, 40, 62.
  67. ↑ Lidow 2016, pp. 116–130.
  68. ↑ "Sri Lanka vs. Tamil Eelam". https://www.prcprague.cz/fcdataset/srilanka-tamileelam. 
  69. ↑ "CFA gave de facto recognition to Eelam: LTTE". 23 February 2007. https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/cfa-gave-de-facto-recognition-to-eelam-ltte/story-mUyWfYQqqKRqk2CLexoiIM.html. 
  70. ↑ Essen (2018), p. 83.

Bibliography



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