Social:Protectorate

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A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state or territory that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law.[1] It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession.[2][3][4] In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement.[4] Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty.[2][3] Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.[5][6][7] Protectorates can also be a federation of multiple dependent states, such as with the Aden protectorate.

A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state.[8][9] A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its International legal personality is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.[10][lower-alpha 1]

History

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.[11]

Typology

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter.[12][4][2][3] Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

Protected state

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.[10][13]

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state.[14] A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.[lower-alpha 1]

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.[15]

Colonial protection

Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection.[16][17] Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces. In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.

Amical protection

In amical protection—as in Britain's relationship with the United States of the Ionian Islands from 1815 to 1864—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate.[18][19] The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or of dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). The protector's interest may be in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

The great powers frequently extended amical protection to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance.[ambiguous] After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection to other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".[20]

List of protectorates

Brazil

Imperial protectorates

  • UruguayUruguay (1851-1870)[21]
  • ParaguayParaguay (1870-1875)[22]

Republican protectorates

British Empire

List of former British protectorates

Americas
Arab world
  • 24px Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen[24]
    • Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)
      • 24px Kathiri
      • 24px Mahra
      • 24px Qu'aiti
      • 24px Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)
      • Hawra
      • Irqa
    • Western Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962-1967), including Aden Colony
      • 24px Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)
      • 24px Beihan
      • 24px Dhala and Qutaibi
      • 24px Fadhli
      • 24px Lahej
      • 24px Lower Yafa
      • Audhali
      • Haushabi
      • Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
      • Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
      • Lower Aulaqi
      • Alawi
      • Aqrabi
      • Dathina
      • Shaib
  • Egypt Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)
  • United Kingdom Egypt Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) (condominium with Egypt)
Asia
Europe
  • 24x24px British Cyprus (1871–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown colony 1922–60)
  • United Kingdom Template:Country data Two Sicilies Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Malta Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
  • 24x24px Ionian islands (1815–1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
Sub-Saharan Africa

*protectorates that existed alongside a colony of the same name

Oceania

List of former British protected states

As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.[28]

China

Dutch Empire

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):[38][39][40]

Sumatra

Riau Archipelago

  • Lingga-Riau (1819–1911)

Java

Bali

Lombok

Flores and Solor

  • Larantuka (1859–1904)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • Sikka (1879–c. 1947)

Borneo

Celebes

  • Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • File:Flag of Bone.png Bone Sultanate (1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • File:Macangnge Flag of Luwu.jpg Luwu (1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

Ajattappareng Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Barru
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
  • Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Balangnipa
  • Binuang
  • Cenrana
  • Majene
  • Mamuju
  • Pambauang
  • Tapalang

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

  • Allah
  • Batulapa
  • Bontobatu
  • Enrekang
  • Kasa
  • Maiwa
  • Malua

Moluccas

West Timor and Alor

  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

New Guinea

Egypt

  • Template:Country data All-Palestine (1948–1959) – although it claimed the former territory of Mandatory Palestine, the polity only held control of the Gaza Strip. It was recognized by Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Yemen; but not Transjordan who would annex the West Bank in 1950.

France

Africa

"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.[41]

  • Benin traditional states:
    • Independent of Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
    • Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
  • Central African Republic traditional states:
    • French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
    • French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
  • Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
  • Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
  • Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
  • Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan
  • Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
  • Comoros traditional states:
    • Grande Comore, Mohéli and Anjouan were French protectorates from 6 January 1886 until 25 July 1912, when annexed.
  • Present Djibouti was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
  • Mauritania: 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritania several traditional states:
    • Adrar emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
    • The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
    • Brakna confederation's emirate
    • Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
  • Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez;[42] this[which?] fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.[43]
    • The northern part of Morocco was under Spanish protectorate in the same period.
  • Traditional Madagascar States
    • Kingdom of Imerina under French protectorate, 1882. French Madagascar colony, 28 February 1897.
  • Template:Country data French protectorate of Tunisia Tunisia (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty

Asia

1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)

Europe

Oceania

Germany

5000 kronen – Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945)

The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:

India

Italy

  • The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
  • Monaco Monaco under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
  • Ethiopia : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
  • Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
  • Benadir Coast in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian Somaliland.
    • Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
    • Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).

Japan

Poland

Portugal

  • Cabinda (Portuguese Congo) (1885–1974), Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".
  • Kingdom of Kongo (1857–1914)
  • Gaza Empire (1824–1895), now part of Mozambique
  • Angoche Sultanate (1903–1910)
  • Kingdom of Larantuka (1515–1859)

Russia and the Soviet Union

De facto

Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates:

Spain

  • Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April 1958).
  • Sultanate of Sulu (1851–1899)

Turkey and the Ottoman Empire

De facto

United Nations

United States

Contemporary usage

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates.[58] However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs within the United States Department of the Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

Joint protectorates

  • Template:Country data Republic of Ragusa Republic of Ragusa (1684–1798), a joint Habsburg Austrian–Ottoman Turkish protectorate
  • The United States of the Ionian Islands and the Septinsular Republic were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see Provveditore) Ionian Islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos), officially under joint protectorate of the allied Christian powers, de facto a British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.
  • United Kingdom Egypt Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
  • Independent State of Croatia Independent State of Croatia (1941–1943)

See also

  • British Protected Person
  • Client state
  • European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
  • EUFOR Althea
  • High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina
  • League of Nations mandate
  • Peace Implementation Council
  • Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)
  • Protectorate (imperial China)
  • Timeline of national independence
  • Tribute

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Protected state in this technical sense is distinguished from the informal usage of "protected state" to refer to a state receiving protection.
  2. ↑ The British held a de jure protected state over Afghanistan. Despite agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of Gandamak, Abdur Rahman Khan held Afghanistan as a de-facto independent state by holding external affairs with other nations such as Persia and Russia, and often opposing the British.
  3. ↑ Some scholars regard the relationship as one of Priest-patron rather than a protectorate.[35][36][37]

References

  1. ↑ Hoffmann, Protectorates (1987), p. 336.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Fuess, Albrecht (1 January 2005). "Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517" (in en). Journal of Cyprus Studies 11 (28–29): 11–29. ISSN 1303-2925. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA144051591&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=13032925&p=AONE&sw=w. Retrieved 24 October 2020. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Reisman, W. (1 January 1989). "Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations". Michigan Journal of International Law 10 (1): 231–240. ISSN 1052-2867. https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol10/iss1/21/. Retrieved 24 October 2020. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Bojkov, Victor D.. "Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning". Southeast European Politics 4.1: 41–67. https://homepage.univie.ac.at/vedran.dzihic/bojkov_2003.pdf. 
  5. ↑ Leys, Colin (2014). "The British ruling class" (in en). Socialist Register 50. ISSN 0081-0606. https://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/20194. Retrieved 23 October 2020. 
  6. ↑ Kirkwood, Patrick M. (21 July 2016). ""Lord Cromer's Shadow": Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines" (in en). Journal of World History 27 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1353/jwh.2016.0085. ISSN 1527-8050. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/625981/summary. Retrieved 23 October 2020. 
  7. ↑ Rubenson, Sven (1966). "Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale". The Journal of African History 7 (3): 445–457. doi:10.1017/S0021853700006526. ISSN 0021-8537. https://www.jstor.org/stable/180113. Retrieved 24 October 2020. 
  8. ↑ Archer, Francis Bisset (1967) (in en). The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-1139-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=wk6o1XniPsQC. 
  9. ↑ Johnston, Alex. (1905). "The Colonization of British East Africa". Journal of the Royal African Society 5 (17): 28–37. ISSN 0368-4016. https://www.jstor.org/stable/715150. Retrieved 24 October 2020. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Meijknecht, Towards International Personality (2001), p. 42.
  11. ↑ Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013), p. 16.
  12. ↑ Yoon, Jong-pil (17 August 2020). "Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties". History of European Ideas 46 (6): 811–826. doi:10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725. ISSN 0191-6599. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725. Retrieved 24 October 2020. 
  13. ↑ Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013), p. 16: "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), p. 50.
  15. ↑ Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013), pp. 16–17.
  16. ↑ Onah, Emmanuel Ikechi (9 January 2020). "Nigeria: A Country Profile" (in en). Journal of International Studies 10: 151–162. doi:10.32890/jis.10.2014.7954. ISSN 2289-666X. http://e-journal.uum.edu.my/index.php/jis/article/view/7954. Retrieved 21 September 2021. 
  17. ↑ Moloney, Alfred (1890). "Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West Africa". Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography 12 (10): 596–614. doi:10.2307/1801424. ISSN 0266-626X. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1801424. Retrieved 21 September 2021. 
  18. ↑ Wick, Alexis (2016), The Red Sea: In Search of Lost Space, University of California Press, pp. 133–, ISBN 978-0-520-28592-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=haowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 
  19. ↑ Αλιβιζάτου, Αικατερίνη (12 March 2019) (in en). Use of GIS in analyzing archaeological sites: the case study of Mycenaean Cephalonia, Greece. https://amitos.library.uop.gr/xmlui/handle/123456789/5063. Retrieved 2 July 2022. 
  20. ↑ Dumieński, Zbigniew (2014). Microstates as Modern Protected States: Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood (Report). Occasional Paper. Centre for Small State Studies. http://ams.hi.is/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Microstates_OccasionalPaper.pdf. Retrieved 2 July 2022. 
  21. ↑ DORATIOTO, Francisco (January 15, 2026). "Poder Naval e política externa do Império do Brasil no Rio da Prata (1822-1852)". https://portaldeperiodicos.marinha.mil.br/index.php/navigator/article/download/333/313/1172. 
  22. ↑ BATISTA VAZ, Braz (April 27, 2020). "Brazil and the end of the Paraguayan War: notes on military operations and diplomacy". https://portaldeperiodicos.marinha.mil.br/index.php/navigator/article/download/413/397. 
  23. ↑ Castro, Genesco de (2005). "O estado independente do Acre e J. Plácido de Castro : excertos históricos". http://www2.senado.leg.br/bdsf/handle/id/1051. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), p. 51.
  25. ↑ "Timeline – Story of Independence". https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/timeline-story-of-independence-115638. 
  26. ↑ Mullard, Saul (2011), Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History, BRILL, p. 184, ISBN 978-90-04-20895-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=G_1J4tgrYDUC&pg=PA184 
  27. ↑ Phanjoubam, Pradip (2015), The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers, Routledge, pp. 3–4, ISBN 978-1-317-34004-1, https://books.google.com/books?id=OxStCwAAQBAJ 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), pp. 50–51.
  29. ↑ "Histories of the Modern Middle East". http://laits.utexas.edu/modern_me/egypt/3/treaty. 
  30. ↑ Francis Carey Owtram (1999). "Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920". University of London. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1556/1/U126805.pdf. 
  31. ↑ "A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112
  32. ↑ Goldstein, Melvyn C. (April 1995), Tibet, China and the United States, The Atlantic Council, p. 3, https://case.edu/affil/tibet/documents/ReflectionsontheTibetQuestion1995.pdf 
  33. ↑ Norbu, Dawa (2001), China's Tibet Policy, Routledge, p. 78, ISBN 978-1-136-79793-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=EGqyIgOlUCIC&pg=PA78 
  34. ↑ Lin, Hsaio-ting (2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49. UBC Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&pg=PA8. 
  35. ↑ Sloane, Robert D. (Spring 2002), "The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet", Emory International Law Review 16 (1): note 93, p. 135: "This ["priest-patron"] relationship reemerged during China's prolonged domination by the Manchu Ch'ing dynasty (1611–1911).", https://heinonline.org/HOL/Print?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/emint16&id=113 
  36. ↑ Karan, P. P. (2015), "Suppression of Tibetan Religious Heritage", in S. D. Brunn, The Changing World Religion Map, Spriger Science, p. 462, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_23, ISBN 978-94-017-9375-9 
  37. ↑ Sinha, Nirmal C. (May 1964), "Historical Status of Tibet", Bulletin of Tibetology 1 (1): 27, http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_01_01_04.pdf 
  38. ↑ "Indonesian traditional polities". https://rulers.org/indotrad.html. 
  39. ↑ "Indonesian Traditional States part 1". https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states1.html. 
  40. ↑ "Indonesian Traditional States Part 2". https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states2.html. 
  41. ↑ See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. Freedom and Authority in French West Africa. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:
    Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996) ISBN 0-312-16000-3.
    Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), ISBN 978-0-8047-2999-4.
    Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) ISBN 0-521-64255-8.
    Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).
  42. ↑ Bedjaoui, Mohammed (1 January 1991). International Law: Achievements and Prospects. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9231027166. https://books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA51. 
  43. ↑ Capaldo, Giuliana Ziccardi (1 January 1995). Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947–1992). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 0792329937. https://books.google.com/books?id=esfISSxc13cC&pg=PA453. 
  44. ↑ C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56
  45. ↑ Gonschor, Lorenz Rudolf (August 2008). Law as a Tool of Oppression and Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in Hawaiʻi, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui (Thesis). Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. pp. 56–59. hdl:10125/20375.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Gründer, Horst (2004) (in de). Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien. Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-8252-1332-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=rKfe8UOC6cAC. 
  47. ↑ Hoffmann, Protectorates (1987), pp. 336–339.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Gerrits, Andre W. M.; Bader, Max (2 July 2016). "Russian patronage over Abkhazia and South Ossetia: implications for conflict resolution". East European Politics 32 (3): 297–313. doi:10.1080/21599165.2016.1166104. ISSN 2159-9165. 
  49. ↑ Pieńkowski, Jakub (2016). "Renewal of Negotiations on Resolving the Transnistria Conflict" (in en). https://www.ceeol.com/search/gray-literature-detail?id=598329. 
  50. ↑ Greene, Sam (26 April 2019). "Putin's 'Passportization' Move Aimed At Keeping the Donbass Conflict on Moscow's Terms" (in en). The Moscow Times. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/04/26/putins-passportization-move-aimed-at-keeping-the-donbass-conflict-on-moscows-terms-a65405. 
  51. ↑ Robinson, Paul (1 October 2016). "Russia's role in the war in Donbass, and the threat to European security". European Politics and Society 17 (4): 506–521. doi:10.1080/23745118.2016.1154229. ISSN 2374-5118. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23745118.2016.1154229. 
  52. ↑ "Putin's Karabakh victory sparks alarm in Ukraine". Atlantic Council. 12 November 2020. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/putins-karabakh-victory-sparks-alarm-in-ukraine/. 
  53. ↑ Goble, Paul (25 November 2020). "Nagorno-Karabakh Now A Russian Protectorate – OpEd". Eurasia Review. https://www.eurasiareview.com/25112020-nagorno-karabakh-now-a-russian-protectorate-oped/. 
  54. ↑ Socor, Vladimir. "Russia's 'Peacekeeping' Operation in Karabakh: Foundation of a Russian Protectorate (Part Two)". Jamestown. https://jamestown.org/program/russias-peacekeeping-operation-in-karabakh-foundation-of-a-russian-protectorate-part-two/. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Kingston, A. J. (2023) (in en). Ottoman Empire: The Sultan's Domain. A.J. Kingston. ISBN 978-1-83938-338-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=teC-EAAAQBAJ&q=Ottoman+vassal&pg=PT57. 
  56. ↑ Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. 1963. pp. 257. 
  57. ↑ Aguilar, Filomeno V. (2000). "The Republic of Negros". Philippine Studies 48 (1): 26–52. ISSN 0031-7837. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42634352. 
  58. ↑ "Notice of Finding of Failure To Submit State Plans for the Municipal Solid Waste Landfills Emission Guidelines". Environmental Protection Agency. 12 March 2020. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/03/12/2020-05079/notice-of-finding-of-failure-to-submit-state-plans-for-the-municipal-solid-waste-landfills-emission. 

Bibliography

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