Earth:Sakurajima

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Sakurajima (Japanese: 桜島, lit. Cherry Blossom Island) is an active stratovolcano, formerly an island and now a peninsula, in Kagoshima Prefecture in Kyushu, Japan.[1] It is the most active volcano in Japan.[2]

As of November 2025, the volcanic activity continues,[3][4] dropping volcanic ash on the surroundings. Earlier eruptions built the white sand highlands in the region. On September 13, 2016, a team of experts from Bristol University and the Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre in Japan suggested that the volcano could have a major eruption within 30 years; since then many eruptions have occurred.[5][4]

Sakurajima has a population of a few thousand residents, formerly incorporated as Sakurajima town, with a number of schools, shrines, and shops on the island. It is serviced by the Sakurajima Ferry which runs 24/7. It is a tourist destination known for its onsen, local pottery made from volcanic ash, and produce such as the Sakurajima daikon radish and Sakurajima komikan orange which grow in the immensely fertile volcanic soil.

Sakurajima has many different natural areas due to its eruptive history and the ecosystems where recent eruptions have taken place have been researched as an example of ecological succession.

Geography

Sakurajima is a stratovolcano. Its summit has three peaks, Kita-dake (northern peak), Naka-dake (central peak) and Minami-dake (southern peak) which has been recently active.

Kita-dake is Sakurajima's highest peak, rising to 1,117 m (3,665 ft) above sea level. The mountain is in a part of Kagoshima Bay known as Kinkō-wan. The lava flows of the 1914 eruption connected it with the Ōsumi Peninsula.[6] The former island is part of the city of Kagoshima which is only 4 km (2.5 mi) across the bay.[7] The surface of this volcanic peninsula is about 77 km2 (30 sq mi).

A map of Sakurajima in 1902, showing it as a distinct island.

Sakurajima is part of the Kirishima-Kinkowan National Park, and its lava flows are a major tourist attraction. The area around Sakurajima contains several hot spring resorts. One of the main agricultural products of Sakurajima is a huge basketball-sized white radish (Sakurajima daikon).[8]

Geology

Sakurajima is in the 25 km (16 mi)-wide Aira caldera, which formed in an enormous "blow-out-and-cave-in" eruption around 28,000 years ago.[9] Several hundred cubic kilometres of ash and pumice were ejected, causing the magma chamber underneath the erupting vents to collapse. Tephra fell as far as 1,000 km (620 mi) from the volcano. Sakurajima is an active vent of the same Aira caldera volcano.

Sakurajima was initially formed about 3000 years later and has had 17 large-scale pumice eruptions since.[9] It is about 8 km (5 mi) south of the centre of the caldera, on its rim.[9] Most of the lavas and tephra erupted have an andesitic-dacitic composition but there are some rhyolite composition eruptives.[10]

Volcanic activity at Kita-dake ended around 4,900 years ago: later eruptions. have been centered on Minami-dake.[11] Initially since 2006, activity was centred on Showa crater, to the east of the summit of Minami-dake,[12] but by 2025 had moved to the summit crater.[4]

History

Prehistoric eruptions

After the volcano formed about 26,000 years ago BP, until recorded history times only the largest eruptions can be identified.[9] Pumice layers P4 to P17 include the P14 vary thick layer from a VEI 6 eruption over 10,000 years ago.[9]

Historic eruptions

Its first eruption in recorded history was in 963 AD.[13] Most of its eruptions are Strombolian,[13] affecting only the summit areas, but larger Plinian eruptions have occurred in 1471–1476, 1779–1782 and 1914.[14]

1914 eruption

1914 Sakurajima eruption
Sakurajima erupting in 1914
Start dateJanuary 11, 1914
TypePeléan
VEI4
ImpactPre-eruption earthquakes killed 35 people and the eruption killed 23 people;[15] caused an evacuation and significant changes to the local topography.

The 1914 eruption (also known as Sakura-Jima eruption[6] or Taisho eruption[16]) began on January 11 and was the most powerful in twentieth-century Japan. The volcano had been dormant for over a century until 1914.[17] Almost all residents had left the island in the previous days; several large earthquakes had warned them that an eruption was imminent.

Initially, the eruption was very explosive, generating eruption columns and pyroclastic flows, but after a very large earthquake on January 12, and another the day after, it became effusive, generating a large lava flow.[17] Ash fall occurred as far as the north of Honshu.[16] The January 12 earthquake killed 35, and in total, 58 people died.[15][17] Lava flows filled the narrow strait between the island and the mainland, turning it into a peninsula. It transpired that about 90% of the total magma volume in dense-rock equivalent was lava.[18]

Lava flows are rare in Japan—because the silica content of the magmas is high, explosive eruptions are far more common[19]—but the lava flows at Sakurajima continued for months.[17] The island grew, engulfing several smaller islands nearby, and eventually became connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus. Parts of Kagoshima Bay became significantly shallower, and it made tides higher.[17]

During the last stages of the eruption, emptying of the underlying magma chamber sank the centre of the Aira Caldera by about 60 cm (24 in).[17] This showed that Sakurajima draws its magma from the same magma reservoir that fed the ancient caldera-forming eruption.[17] The eruption partly inspired a 1914 movie, The Wrath of the Gods, centering on a family curse that ostensibly causes the eruption.

Recent activity

Topographic map of Sakurajima and its surroundings

Sakurajima's activity became more prominent in 1955, and the volcano has been erupting almost constantly ever since. Thousands of small explosions happen each year, throwing ash to heights of up to a few kilometers above the mountain. The Sakurajima Volcano Observatory was set up in 1960 to monitor these eruptions.[13] Between 1955 and 2024 15,057 eruptions from the Minamidake and the Showa craters were observed.[18]

Monitoring of the volcano and predictions of large eruptions are particularly important because it is in a densely populated area, with the city of Kagoshima's 680,000 residents just a few kilometers from the volcano. The city conducts regular evacuation drills, and a number of shelters have been built where people can take refuge from falling volcanic debris.[20]

In light of the dangers it presents to nearby populations, Sakurajima was designated a Decade Volcano in 1991, identifying it as worthy of particular study as part of the United Nations' International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.[21]

Sakurajima erupting on 10 March 2009

On March 10, 2009, Sakurajima erupted, sending debris up to 2 km (1.2 mi). An eruption had been expected following a series of smaller explosions over the weekend. It is not thought there was any damage caused.[22] An eruption occurred from the Minami-dake summit crater at 5:38 on Sunday, August 9, 2010, sending debris up to 5000 m (16,000 ft).[23] In 2011 and 2012, Sakurajima experienced several significant eruptions; volcanic activity continued into 2013.[24] On August 18, 2013, the volcano erupted from Showa crater and produced its highest recorded plume of ash since 2006, rising 5,000 metres high and causing darkness and significant ash falls on the central part of Kagoshima city. The eruption occurred at 16:31 and was the 500th eruption of the year.[25] In August 2015, Japan's meteorological agency issued a level 4 emergency warning, which urges residents to prepare to evacuate.[26]

Scientists warned that a major eruption could soon take place at the volcano;[27] it eventually did erupt around 20:00 on February 5, 2016.[28] After a long pause of eruptions at the vent, the eruptions abruptly stopped there and returned to the Showa crater, on April 4, 2016, some 8–9 days preceding major earthquakes on the Median Tectonic Line near Kumamoto, Japan.[29] Then, three months later, on July 26, it spewed volcanic ash 5,000 m (16,000 ft) into the air.[30]

On October 3, 2020, at 07:35 UTC, the volcano erupted once again, this time from the Aira caldera. A volcanic ash advisory for aviation was issued by the Volcanic Ash Advisory Center Tokyo (VAAC) at 07:43 UTC, showing the ash cloud to be stationary and reaching FL100 (10,000 feet).[31] On July 24, 2022, at 20:05 JST, an explosive eruption occurred at the summit crater of the volcano, and cinders scattered up to 2.5 km (1.6 mi) from the crater.[32][33] Following this eruption, at 20:50 JST, the Japan Meteorological Agency raised the eruption alert level from Level 3 to Level 5, the highest level, and urged maximum precaution and evacuation.[32] This was the first time an eruption alert level 5 has been issued for Sakurajima.[34] On February 9, 2023, an eruption occurred at the Showa crater on Sakurajima at 10:52 JST.[35] The plumes had risen to 1,000 metres (3,300 feet) at 11:10 JST, according to the Kagoshima Meteorological Office.[35] People in a 2 km (1.2 mi) radius were sent a warning by the local weather observatory against pyroclastic flows and falling rocks.[36] On February 14, 2024, an eruption occurred at the southern peak's Minamidake crater on Sakurajima at 18:33 JST, emitting plumes of over 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) in height and spewing rocks as far as 1.3 km (0.81 mi) away.[37] Minamidake crater again erupted on October 18, 2024 with a plume above 4 km (2.5 mi).[4] Between May 15 and May 16, 2025 multiple small eruptions with volcanic plumes up to 3 km (1.9 mi) high occurred disturbing local air travel.[38] On November 16, 2025, Minamidake crater erupted at 00:57 JST with an eruption plume that reached 4,400 m (14,400 ft) high.[4] Volcanic rocks from the eruption reached as far as the fifth station, some 1.2 km (0.75 mi) from the crater and a level 3 alert was issued.[39]

Summary of eruptive history

Summary of known eruptions
Start Date[40] Years before 1950 (BP)[40] VEI[40] Lava volume
(km3) 		Tephra volume
(km3) 		Comment
2017 March 25, 2017 - 3 - - Explosive with effusive eruption continuing.[40] Minamidake crater M3 phase.[9]
1955 October 13, 1955 - 3 - - Explosive with effusive eruption continuing until August 22, 2016.[40] Contains Minamidake crater M1 phase until 1971 and M2 phase from 1972, and from 2006 to 2017 eruptions at Showa crater.[9]
1954 November 16, 1954 ± 15 - - - - Uncertain details December 16, 1954± 15.[40]
1950 June 29, 1950 0 1 - - Explosive with effusive eruption continuing until September 9, 1950.[40]
1948 July 27, 1948 2 1 - - Explosive with effusive eruption on single day.[40]
1946 January, 1946 4 2 0.18[9] - Eruption ended November 1946.[40]
1942 July 1, 1942 8 1 - - Explosive with effusive eruption on single day.[40]
1941 April, 1941 9 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption ended 26 August 1941[40]
1940 April 24, 1940 10 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption ended 9 July 1940.[40]
1939 November 26, 1939 11 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption ended about 12 November 1939.[40]
1938 February 25, 1938 12 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption ended 31 March 1938.[40]
1935 September 20, 1935 15 1 - - Explosive with effusive eruption ended 24 September 1935.[40]
1914 January 12, 1914 36 4 1.34[9] 0.5[9] Explosive (P1 tephra) with effusive eruption of Taisho lava ended in May 1915.[40][10]
1899 September 24, 1899 51 - - - Uncertain details, ended September 25, 1899.[40]
1860 1860 90 1 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1799 March 27, 1799 151 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1797 1797 153 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1794 1794 156 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption[40]
1791 September 11, 1791 159 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1790 July 29, 1790 160 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1785 November 20, 1785 165 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1783 September 3, 1783 167 3 Explosive with effusive eruption continuing until August 22, 2016.[40]
1782 January 18, 1782 168 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption may have VEI less than 2.[40]
1779 November 8, 1779 171 4 1.7[10] 0.22[10] Explosive (P2 tephra) with effusive eruption of An-ei lava ended in May 1781.[40][10]
1756 September 9, 1756 194 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1749 September, 1749 201 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
1742 April 6, 1742 208 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption possibly less than VEI 2.[40]
1706 January, 1706 244 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption possibly less than VEI 2.[40]
1678 March 1, 1678 272 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption possibly less than VEI 2.[40]
1642 April 6, 1642 308 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption possibly less than VEI 2.[40]
1478 September 23, 1478 472 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption possibly less than VEI 2.[40]
1471 November 3, 1471 479 5 0.53[10] 0.49[10] Explosive (P3 tephra) with effusive eruption of Bunmei lava possibly less than VEI 5 ending on or after October 8, 1476.[40][10]
1468 1468 482 2 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
778 778 1172 0 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
766 July 20, 766 1184 3 Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
764 January, 764 1186 4 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40] First recorded large–scale historical eruption.[9]
716 716 1234 3 Explosive with effusive eruption continued until 718.[40]
708 708 1242 3 Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-650 650 BCE 2600 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-1050 1050 BCE 3000 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-2050 2050 BCE 4000 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption[40]
-2900 2900 BCE 4850 4 - 0.18[10] Explosive (P5 tephra)[10] with effusive eruption.[40]
-3500 3500 BCE 5450 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-4800 4800 BCE 6750 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption,[40], Minami-dak activity.[9]
-5400 5400 BCE 7350 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-5950 5950 BCE 7900 - - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-6050 6050 BCE 8000 5 - - Explosive with effusive eruption.[40]
-6350 6350 BCE 8300 - - - Explosive (P11 tephra) with effusive eruption of Gongenyam lava.[40][10]
-7750 7750 BCE 9700 - - - Explosive (P12 tephra) with effusive eruption of Harutayama lava[40][10]
-8050 8050 ± 1000 BCE 10000 6 - - P13 tephra and Kitadake lava (Warishizaki lava)[10]

Eruptive risk

A monitoring system with formalised warnings since 2007 is in place, and evacuation drills have been held in the Sakurajima immediate area since 1970.[9] Since 2024 a predictive model based on local ground inflation has been in place at the local volcanic observatory that may give short term warning of eruption and ash fall distribution from contemporary minor eruptions.[18] An impact assessment of a eruption of the scale of the 1914 eruption predicts the disruption with damage multiple critical infrastructure features, including airports, roads, power networks, and buildings up to a Japanese national level.[16] The volcano is predicted to accumulate sufficient magma in 130 years to allow a repeat of this scale eruption.[16] The ash fall thickness of such an eruption would have about a 5% probability of temporarily closing the six largest airports in Japan and above a 80% probability of closing the major Kyushu airports of Miyazaki and Kagoshima.[16] Road and rail transport disruption would be limited to Kyushu and electricity supply disruption to souther Kyushu.[16] The combination of an eruption and a high rainfall weather event would be particularity problematical due to electrical arc flash events.[16] The ash fall would be most disruptive to local property and people if an eruption occurred in winter or during a has the local ash fall is likely to be heavier then.[16]

Culture

A sculpture of a man's head screaming at the sky with a guitar by its side, carved out of volcanic rock.
Sculpture of Nagabuchi at the site of the All Night Concert on Sakurajima.

Sakurajima is a novella written in 1946 by the Japanese writer Haruo Umezaki, about a disillusioned Navy officer stationed on the island towards the end of World War II as American planes bomb Japan. The story is one of Umezaki's most famous works. It is based on his own experience; during World War II, he was stationed at a military cipher base in the nearby city of Kagoshima.

"Sakurajima" is also the name of a song by Japanese singer Tsuyoshi Nagabuchi. In 2004, Nagabuchi held an Tsuyoshi Nagabuchi All NIGHT LIVE IN Sakurajima (ja) at a quarry of Sakurajima that attracted an audience of 75,000. Afterwards, a statue showing Nagabuchi screaming with a guitar was installed on the site of the concert.[41]

See also

  • List of volcanoes in Japan
  • Flag of Kagoshima Prefecture, which features Sakurajima

Notes

  1. ↑ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Sakurajima" in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 814; see photo, caption -- Kagoshima after Sakurashima eruption, Illustrated London News. January 1914.
  2. ↑ "Sakurajima, Japan's Most Active Volcano" (in en). Nippon Communications Foundation. 2018-05-16. https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00194/. 
  3. ↑ "Sakurajima Volcano Volcanic Ash Advisory: VA AT 20210405/0420Z FL050 EXTD NE OBS VA DTG: 05/0420Z to 5000 ft (1500 m)". https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/sakurajima/news/126437/Sakurajima-Volcano-Volcanic-Ash-Advisory-VA-AT-202104050420Z-FL050-EXTD-NE-OBS-VA-DTG-050420Z-to-500.html. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 "Sakurajima volcano erupts in southwest Japan, creating 4,400 m-high plume". The Mainichi (Tokyo: Mainichi Shimbun). 16 November 2025. https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20251116/p2g/00m/0na/003000c. 
  5. ↑ McCurry, Justin (13 September 2016). "New data points to major eruption of Japanese volcano". https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/13/new-data-points-to-major-eruption-of-japanese-volcano. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Davison, C. (1916-09-21). "The Sakura-Jima Eruption of January, 1914". Nature 98 (2447): 57–58. doi:10.1038/098057b0. Bibcode: 1916Natur..98...57D. https://zenodo.org/record/1429613. 
  7. ↑ Nussbaum, "Kagoshima prefecture" at p. 447.
  8. ↑ "Touristic information on synapse.ne.jp". http://www.synapse.ne.jp/update/whatup/back/sakurajima-e.html. 
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 Iguchi, M. (2025). "Integrated Research on Large-Scale Eruption at Sakurajima Volcano". Journal of Disaster Research 20 (2): 186-196. doi:10.20965/jdr.2025.p0186. Bibcode: 2025JDisR..20..186I. 
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 Nishihara, A.; Geshi, N.; Naruo, H. (2022). "Long-term change of the eruption activities of Sakurajima volcano, Japan, inferred from the fallout tephra deposits". Frontiers in Earth Science 10: 988373. doi:10.3389/feart.2022.988373. Bibcode: 2022FrEaS..10.8373N. 
  11. ↑ "Aira: Eruptive History". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=282080. 
  12. ↑ Iguchi, Masato (20 July 2013). "Forecasting volcanic activity of Sakurajima". Proceedings of IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly.. http://www.iavcei2013.com/iavcei_hp/PDF/0A2_Key-02.pdf. Retrieved 18 August 2013. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Sakura-jima, Japan". VolcanoWorld. Oregon State University. http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/volcanoes/volc_images/north_asia/sakura.html. 
  14. ↑ "Sakurajima at the Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo.". http://hakone.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/unzen/sakura/geol.html. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Japan's Sakurajima volcano due for major eruption within 30 years, say scientists". BBC News. 14 September 2016. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-37358316. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 Rahadianto, H.; Tatano, H.; Iguchi, M. (2025). "Multiscale impact assessment of massive ash fallout from a large eruption: What may happen if Sakurajima Taisho eruption occurs in contemporary Japan?". Journal of Disaster Science and Management 1 (1): 24. doi:10.1007/s44367-025-00023-1. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 "The 1914 Sakurajima explosion at Volcanoworld". http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vw_hyperexchange/sakura-jima.html. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Iguchi, M.; Ishii, K. (2025). "Quantitative Forecasting of Volcanic Ashfall Prior to the Onset of Vulcanian Eruption by Combining Transport and Dispersion Simulation with Ground Deformation Observation at Sakurajima Volcano, Japan". Journal of Disaster Research 20 (3): 259-268. doi:10.20965/jdr.2025.p0259. Bibcode: 2025JDisR..20..259I. 
  19. ↑ "Japanese Volcanoes at the Northern Illinois University". http://jove.geol.niu.edu/students/mdare/VirtualFieldTrip/Mt_Fuji/volcanoinfo.htm. 
  20. ↑ "Reuters report on Sakurajima explosion, June 5th 2006". http://standeyo.com/NEWS/06_Earth_Changes/060605.Sakurajima.html. 
  21. ↑ "Decade Volcano Sakurajima at the Earthquake Research Institute". http://hakone.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/unzen/sakura/sakura.html. 
  22. ↑ "Japan's Sakurajima volcano erupts". March 10, 2009. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7934418.stm. 
  23. ↑ "桜島が噴火 噴煙が火口上5000mに上昇 噴煙量は多量（ウェザーニュース）" (in ja). https://news.yahoo.co.jp/articles/4419c0f435f036091adabbd2117e6e9795e3b108. 
  24. ↑ "Volcanic activity world-wide 16 November 2012: Ruapehu, Paluweh, Michael, Kilauea, Fuego, Santiaguito, Nevado del Ruiz, Reventador, Sakurajima, Mammoth Mountain (Long Valley), Ambrym, Nyiragongo". http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/view_news/22500/Volcanic-activity-world-wide-16-November-2012-Ruapehu-Paluweh-Michael-Kilauea-Fuego-Santiaguito-Neva.html. 
  25. ↑ "Sakurajima spews its highest volcanic column ever at 5,000 meters". Asahi Shimbun. 18 August 2013. http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201308180030. 
  26. ↑ "Volcano alerts issued in Ecuador, Japan". 15 August 2015. http://www.cnn.com/2015/08/15/americas/ecuador-japan-volcanoes/. 
  27. ↑ Klemetti, Erik. "Sakurajima in Japan Might Be Headed Towards a Large Eruption". Wired. https://www.wired.com/2015/08/sakurajima-japan-might-headed-towards-large-eruption/. Retrieved 17 April 2018. 
  28. ↑ "Sakurajima volcano in Japan erupts". The Guardian. Associated Press. 5 February 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/05/sakurajima-volcano-japan-erupts. 
  29. ↑ "Volcanic activity worldwide 4 Apr 2016: Popocatépetl volcano, Bromo, Turrialba, Sangay, Sakurajima,...". http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/volcano-activity/news/57153/Volcanic-activity-worldwide-4-Apr-2016-Popocatpetl-volcano-Bromo-Turrialba-Sangay-Sakurajima.html. 
  30. ↑ "Kagoshima's Sakurajima volcano erupts, spews plume 5,000 meters up". 26 July 2016. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/07/26/world/kagoshimas-sakurajima-volcano-erupts-spews-plume-5000-meters/. 
  31. ↑ "Sakurajima Volcano Volcanic Ash Advisory: ERUPTED AT 20201003/0735Z FL100 STNR OBS VA DTG: 03/0730Z". https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/sakurajima/news/110862/Sakurajima-Volcano-Volcanic-Ash-Advisory-ERUPTED-AT-202010030735Z-FL100-STNR-OBS-VA-DTG-030730Z.html. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "桜島で噴火 噴火警戒レベル5に引き上げ 33世帯に避難指示 | NHK" (in ja). https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20220724/k10013734191000.html. 
  33. ↑ "MBCニュース | 桜島で噴火 噴石が東方向に2．4キロ飛ぶ". https://www.mbc.co.jp/news/article/2022072400058009.html. 
  34. ↑ "桜島で噴火が発生 気象庁が噴火速報を発表 火口上300mで雲に入る" (in ja). https://weathernews.jp/s/topics/202207/240205/. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Sakurajima volcano erupts in southwestern Japan". The Japan Times. 8 February 2023. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/02/08/national/sakurajima-eruption-kagoshima/. 
  36. ↑ "Sakurajima volcano in southwestern Japan erupts". Kyodo News+. https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2023/02/c2dd8a9a94de-sakurajima-volcano-in-southwestern-japan-erupts.html. 
  37. ↑ "Sakurajima volcano in southwestern Japan erupts". Kyodo News+. https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/02/6afe56ba2c76-sakurajima-volcano-in-southwestern-japan-erupts.html. 
  38. ↑ "Japan's Sakurajima volcano erupts violently, disrupting flights and travel". https://www.thestandard.com.hk/world-news/article/302640/Japans-Sakurajima-volcano-erupts-violently-disrupting-flights-and-travel. 
  39. ↑ "Sakurajima Erupts; Plume Exceeds 4,000 Meters". The Yomiuri Shimbun. 16 November 2025. https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20251116-292942/. 
  40. ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 40.14 40.15 40.16 40.17 40.18 40.19 40.20 40.21 40.22 40.23 40.24 40.25 40.26 40.27 40.28 40.29 40.30 40.31 40.32 40.33 40.34 40.35 40.36 40.37 40.38 40.39 40.40 40.41 40.42 40.43 40.44 40.45 40.46 40.47 40.48 40.49 40.50 40.51 "Hekla". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=282080. 
  41. ↑ Matthew Holmes (2012-04-08). "Moving and shaking on Sakurajima". The Japan Times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2012/04/08/travel/moving-and-shaking-on-sakurajima/#.XXAFhyhKjD4. 

References

  • Townley, S.D. (1915). "Seismographs at the Panama-Pacific Exposition," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Stanford, California: Seismological Society of America. OCLC 1604335
  • Teikoku's Complete Atlas of Japan, Teikoku-Shoin Co., Ltd. Tokyo 1990

Further reading



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