Engineering:Road construction

Road construction is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to design and maintain flexible (asphalt) and rigid (concrete) pavements. This includes streets and highways and involves knowledge of soils, hydraulics, and material properties. Pavement engineering involves both new construction and maintenance of existing pavements. Maintenance often involves using engineering judgment to make maintenance repairs with the highest long-term benefit and lowest cost. The Pavement Condition Index (PCI) is an example of an engineering approach applied to existing pavements. Another example is the use of a falling weight deflectometer (FWD) to non-destructively test existing pavements. Calculation of pavement layer strengths can be performed from the resulting deflection data.

Design

Road design consists of two important technical aspects:

• geometrical road design
• structural road design

Besides these two technical sides of the design, environmental issues, planning issues and juridical issues are important.

Construction

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel. Removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) are often needed. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.

Once these activities are completed, construction of the pavement can begin. First the native soil, known as the subgrade, is compacted. Weak soils may also be stabilized with additives such as portland cement and quicklime, or dug out and replaced with imported soils.

Then a base course consisting of gravel or crushed stone is usually placed on the subgrade and compacted. On top of the base course is placed a surface course which typically consists of asphalt concrete or portland cement concrete. This surface course strengthens the pavement structure by spreading out the vehicle loads applied to the subgrade. It also provides a smooth and high-friction surface for vehicles to drive on.

Modern roads, and indeed many ancient ones, such as those built by the Romans, feature a convex transverse profile known as superelevation or camber. This is designed to allow water to drain away from the road to its edges. Water is then carried away by gutters to drains placed at intervals. Some roads don't have gutters and water simply drains away to a naturally porous verge, or into ditches. Modern roads that carry motor traffic also employ camber in curves to aid traffic stability by allowing them to "bank into" the bend to some extent.

On the side of the road there may be retroreflectors on pegs, rocks or crash barriers, white toward the direction of the traffic on that side of the road, and red toward the other direction. In the road surface there may be cat's eyes: retroreflectors that protrude slightly, but which can be driven over without damage.

Road signs are often also made retroreflective or even illuminated in rare circumstances. For greater visibility of road signs at daytime, sometimes fluorescence is applied to get very bright colors.

Maintenance

Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight. A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds with 8,000 pounds on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds on each axle. In most pavement design methodologies trucks are considered to be the sole cause of pavement deterioration.

Pavements are designed for an expected service life. Most European countries have strict standards for road construction that require that most roads should be able to go 30 years or longer between major resurfacings. In the United States new pavements are typically designed for a service life of between 15 and 25 years, depending on the importance of the road. Service life predictions are inherently unreliable due to the difficulty of predicting future traffic and environmental conditions.

Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Maintenance activities can be divided into structural maintenance and functional maintenance, although there is a great deal of overlap. Structural maintenance is maintenance intended to preserve the structural integrity of the pavement, and includes patching potholes, sealing cracks and overlays. Functional maintenance is maintenance to improve the roadway's function of providing a smooth and safe surface for vehicles to drive on, and includes surface grinding and thin overlays.