Independent scientist
An independent scientist (historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body. The expression "gentleman scientist" arose in post-Renaissance Europe,[1] but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased.
Most independent scientists have at some point in their career been affiliated with some academic institution, such as Charles Darwin, who was affiliated with the Geological Society of London.
History
Self-funded scientists practiced more commonly from the Renaissance until the late 19th century, including the Victorian era, especially in England , before large-scale government and corporate funding was available. Many early fellows of the Royal Society in London were independent scientists.
Benefits and drawbacks
Self-funding has the disadvantage that funds may be more restricted; however, it has the advantage of eliminating a number of inconveniences such as teaching obligations, administrative duties, and writing grant requests to funding bodies. It also permits the scientist to have greater control over research directions, as funding bodies direct grants towards interests that may not coincide with that of the scientist. Furthermore, the intellectual property of the inventions belongs to the inventor and not the employer.
Modern science requires competence and may require access to scientific equipment. However, independent scientists may have past careers as funded scientists, cooperate with funded colleagues, obtain partial equipment-only grants, or choose directions where the most expensive resource required is the researcher's time. If the research succeeds, independent scientists may publish results in the same peer-reviewed journals as funded scientists do.
Scientists may choose to work on unusual projects with a high risk of failure also when the grant system does not fund them. A scientist could be attributed the status of an independent scientist if they work on such projects during a gap between two academic positions, for example.
Modern-day independent scientists
Modern-day independent scientists who fund their own research on an independent basis include, for example, Stephen Wolfram who funds his research through the sale of Mathematica software, Julian Barbour, Aubrey de Grey, Barrington Moore, Susan Blackmore,[2] James Lovelock,[2] and John Wilkinson who funds his research on "molecular synergism in nature" by running a regulatory scientific consultancy in natural products.
Peter Rich said of Peter D. Mitchell: "I think he would have found it difficult to have gotten funding because his ideas were rather radical."[3] Mitchell went on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1978. Chemist Luis Leloir funded the research institute he headed, the Institute for Biochemical Research, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1970.[4]
There are today several virtual research institutes for independent scientists, including the Ronin Institute,[5] the National Coalition of Independent Scholars.[6], and the Canadian non-profit organization for scientific research OpenSci.World.[7]
Notable independent scientists
- Mary Anning
- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
- Aristotle
- Hertha Ayrton
- Charles Babbage
- Julian Barbour
- Robert Boyle
- James Braid
- Mark Catesby
- Henry Cavendish
- John Dalton
- Charles Darwin
- Christopher J. Date
- Robert C. Edgar[8]
- Albert Einstein
- Carlo Fornasini
- Benjamin Franklin
- Goldsworthy Gurney
- Oliver Heaviside
- Caroline Herschel
- Robert Kraichnan
- George Frederick Kunz
- Antoine Lavoisier
- Alfred Lee Loomis
- A. Garrett Lisi
- Ada Lovelace
- James Lovelock
- Gregor Mendel
- Isaac Newton
- Joseph Priestley
- David Rittenhouse
- David E. Shaw
- Alexander Shulgin
- Mary Somerville
- Henry Fox Talbot
- Nikola Tesla
- John Wilkinson (scientist)
- Stephen Wolfram
- Thomas Young
- Lord Salisbury
- Konstantin Eduardovitch Tsiolkovsky
See also
- Citizen science
- Funding of science
- Small Science and Big Science
References
- ↑ J. C. Segen (1992). Dictionary of Modern Medicine. p. 246. ISBN:1-85070-321-3
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Susan Blackmore (Oct 24, 2008). "Solo Science: Tinkering Outside The Tower". More Intelligent Life. http://www.moreintelligentlife.com/story/solo-science.
- ↑ Cohen (1998).
- ↑ "All Nobel Prizes in Chemistry". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/.
- ↑ Dance, Amber (2017-03-30). "Flexible working: Solo scientist" (in en). Nature 543 (7647): 747–749. doi:10.1038/nj7647-747a.
- ↑ Wilson, Robin (2013-01-21). "Some Ph.D.'s Choose to Work Off the Grid". The Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/some-ph-d-s-choose-to-work-off-the-grid/.
- ↑ "OpenSci.World - Affiliation for Scientific Research and Publishing". https://OpenSci.World/.
- ↑ "Robert C. Edgar - Google Scholar Citations". https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=RzVMRc0AAAAJ&hl=en.
Sources
- Martello, Robert (2000). "The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney: Gentleman Scientist and Inventor, 1793-1875 (review)". Victorian Studies 42 (4): 688–90. doi:10.1353/vic.1999.0020.
- Porter, Dale H. (1988). The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, Gentleman Scientist and Inventor, 1793–1875. Lehigh University Press. ISBN 978-0-934223-50-8.
- Cohen, J. (1998). "RESEARCH FUNDING: Scientists Who Fund Themselves". Science 279 (5348): 178–81. doi:10.1126/science.279.5348.178. PMID 9446224. Bibcode: 1998Sci...279..178C.
- Keats, Jonathan (5 December 2007). "Craig Venter is the future". http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2007/12/05/craig_venter/index_np.html.
- Lonsdale, Jon (8 October 2019). "The Rise and Fall of the Gentleman Scientist" (in en). https://medium.com/@jonathan.lonsdale/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-gentleman-scientist-80218df587b3.
- Hessler, Angela (17 December 2021). "A path to independence". Science 374 (6574): 1526. doi:10.1126/science.acx9813. PMID 34914528. https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/science.acx9813. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
- Madsen, Andreas (9 October 2020). "Becoming an Independent Researcher and getting published in ICLR with spotlight" (in en). https://andreas-madsen.medium.com/becoming-an-independent-researcher-and-getting-published-in-iclr-with-spotlight-c93ef0b39b8b.
- Madsen, Andreas (23 February 2022). "9 months after my ICLR spotlight award, as an Independent Researcher." (in en). https://andreas-madsen.medium.com/9-months-after-my-iclr-spotlight-award-as-an-independent-researcher-9cfb0c808817.
- Schweitzer, Andrea (8 April 2010). "The path less travelled". Nature 464 (7290): 945. doi:10.1038/nj7290-945a. PMID 20468078.
- Edwards, Rosalind (3 April 2022). "Why do academics do unfunded research? Resistance, compliance and identity in the UK neo-liberal university". Studies in Higher Education 47 (4): 904–914. doi:10.1080/03075079.2020.1817891. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/443226/1/2020_08_04_article_revised_untracked.docx.
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