Philosophy:Supertaster

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Short description: Person with an elevated taste response

A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is of far greater intensity than the average person, having an elevated taste response.[1]

History

The term originated with experimental psychologist Linda Bartoshuk, who has spent much of her career studying genetic variation in taste perception. In the early 1980s, Bartoshuk and her colleagues found that some individuals tested in the laboratory seemed to have an elevated taste response and called them supertasters.[2]

This increased taste response is not the result of response bias or a scaling artifact but appears to have an anatomical or biological basis.

Phenylthiocarbamide

In 1931, Arthur L. Fox, a DuPont chemist, discovered that some people found phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) to be bitter while others found it tasteless.[3][4] At the 1931 American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting, Fox collaborated with Albert F. Blakeslee, a geneticist, to have attendees taste PTC: 65% found it bitter, 28% found it tasteless, and 6% described other taste qualities. Subsequent work revealed that the ability to taste PTC is genetic.[citation needed]

Propylthiouracil

In the 1960s, Roland Fischer was the first to link the ability to taste PTC, and the related compound propylthiouracil (PROP), to food preference, diets, and calorie intake.[5] Today, PROP has replaced PTC for research because of a faint sulfurous odor and safety concerns with PTC.[6] Bartoshuk and colleagues discovered that the taster group could be further divided into medium tasters and supertasters.[7] Research suggests 25% of the population are non-tasters,[8] 50% are medium tasters, and 25% are supertasters.[9]

Cause

The exact cause of heightened response to taste in humans has yet to be elucidated. A review found associations between supertasters and the presence of the TAS2R38 gene, the ability to taste PROP and PTC, and an increased number of fungiform papillae.[10]

In addition, environmental causes may play a role in sensitive taste. The exact mechanisms by which these causes may manifest, as well as possible evolutionary advantages to elevated taste sensitivity, are still unknown.[11][12] In some environments, a heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids. However, an increased response to bitterness may limit approach behavior for various palatable foods.

TAS2R38

The bitter-taste-receptor gene TAS2R38 has been associated with the ability to taste PROP[13] and PTC,[14] although a causal relationship with the supertaster phenomenon has not been established.[15] Additionally, the T2R38 genotype has been linked to a preference for sweetness in children,[16] avoidance of alcoholic beverages,[13] increased prevalence of colon cancer (because of inadequate vegetable consumption),[17] and avoidance of cigarette smoking.[18]

Prevalence

Women

Women are more likely to be supertasters, as are those from Asia, South America, and Africa.[8] Female supertasters tend to have a lower body mass index and better cardiovascular health. This could be because supertasters may not have a high predilection for sweet or high-fat foods compared to the average person.[19]

Identification

The tongue's fungiform papillae can be revealed with blue food dye.

Supertasters were initially identified based on the perceived intensity of propylthiouracil (PROP) compared to a reference salt solution. Supertasters consume more salt in comparison to those with average taste.[20] Because supertasters have a more sensitive sense of taste than medium or non-tasters, this can cause Image scaling artifacts.[4] Subsequently, salt has been replaced with a non-oral gustatory standard. Therefore, if two individuals rate the same gustatory stimulus at a comparable perceptual intensity, but one gives a rating twice as large for the bitterness of a PROP solution, the experimenter can be confident the difference is real and not merely the result of how the person is using the scale.[citation needed] Today, a phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) test strip is used to help determine if someone is a low taster. The general population tastes this as bitter about 75% of the time.[21]

Many studies do not include a cross-modal reference and categorize individuals based on the bitterness of a concentrated PROP solution[22][23] or PROP-impregnated paper.[24] Supertasters tend to have more fungiform papillae and pain receptors than tasters and non-tasters.[25] It is also possible to make a reasonably accurate self-diagnosis at home by carefully examining the tongue and looking for the number of fungiform papillae.[26]

Specific food sensitivities

Although individual food preferences for supertasters cannot be typified, documented examples for either lessened preference or consumption include:

Other foods may also show altered patterns of preference and consumption, but only indirect evidence exists:

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Two decades of supertasting: where do we stand?". Physiology & Behavior 104 (5): 1072–1074. October 2011. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.003. PMID 21851828. 
  2. ↑ "Sweetness: history, preference, and genetic variability". Food Technology 45 (11): 108–13. 1991. INIST:5536670. ISSN 0015-6639. 
  3. ↑ "Six in ten 'tasteblind' to bitter chemical". The Science News-Letter 9: 249. 1931. [verification needed]
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Psychophysical advances aid the study of genetic variation in taste". Appetite 34 (1): 105. February 2000. doi:10.1006/appe.1999.0287. PMID 10744897. 
  5. ↑ "Genetic sensitivity to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and its association with physiological mechanisms controlling body mass index (BMI)". Nutrients 6 (9): 3363–3381. August 2014. doi:10.3390/nu6093363. PMID 25166026. 
  6. ↑ Investigating Safely: A Guide for High School Teachers. NSTA Press. 1 January 2004. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-0-87355-202-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=SJYGmkmnPT8C&pg=PT90. 
  7. ↑ "Olfaction and Taste". Handbook of Psychology: 269–297. 15 April 2003. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0310. ISBN 0471264385. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "BBC - Science & Nature - Human Body and Mind - Science of supertasters". https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/articles/senses/supertaster.shtml. 
  9. ↑ "Why taste is all in the senses". BBC News Health. 9 December 2012. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20640337. 
  10. ↑ "PTC/PROP tasting: anatomy, psychophysics, and sex effects". Physiology & Behavior 56 (6): 1165–1171. December 1994. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(94)90361-1. PMID 7878086. 
  11. ↑ "Impact of genetic and environmental determinants of taste with food preferences in older adults". Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly 27 (3–4): 267–276. 16 September 2008. doi:10.1080/01639360802261920. PMID 19042575. 
  12. ↑ "Myths of Human Genetics: PTC tasting". https://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mythptc.html. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Bitter receptor gene (TAS2R38), 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and alcohol intake". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28 (11): 1629–1637. November 2004. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000145789.55183.D4. PMID 15547448. 
  14. ↑ "The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and propylthiouracil bitterness perception". Current Biology 15 (4): 322–327. February 2005. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.047. PMID 15723792. 
  15. ↑ "Supertasting and PROP bitterness depends on more than the TAS2R38 gene". Chemical Senses 33 (3): 255–265. March 2008. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjm084. PMID 18209019. 
  16. ↑ "Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences". Pediatrics 115 (2): e216–e222. February 2005. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1582. PMID 15687429. 
  17. ↑ "Association between 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and colonic neoplasms". Digestive Diseases and Sciences 50 (3): 483–489. March 2005. doi:10.1007/s10620-005-2462-7. PMID 15810630. 
  18. ↑ "Associations between phenylthiocarbamide gene polymorphisms and cigarette smoking". Nicotine & Tobacco Research 7 (6): 853–858. December 2005. doi:10.1080/14622200500330209. PMID 16298720. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?" (in en-us). The Nutrition Source. Harvard University. 2016-05-31. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2016/05/31/super-tasters-non-tasters-is-it-better-to-be-average/. 
  20. ↑ "For Supertasters, A Desire For Salt Is Genetic" (in en). 16 June 2010. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2010/06/16/127880219/for-supertasters-a-desire-for-salt-is-in-their-genes. 
  21. ↑ "PTC The Genetics of Bitter Taste". https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/ptc/. 
  22. ↑ "Binary taste mixture interactions in prop non-tasters, medium-tasters and super-tasters". Chemical Senses 26 (8): 993–1003. October 2001. doi:10.1093/chemse/26.8.993. PMID 11595676. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Sweet and bitter tastes of alcoholic beverages mediate alcohol intake in of-age undergraduates". Physiology & Behavior 83 (5): 821–831. January 2005. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.10.004. PMID 15639168. 
  24. ↑ "Bitter taste perception and severe vomiting in pregnancy". Physiology & Behavior 69 (3): 259–267. May 2000. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(00)00223-7. PMID 10869591. 
  25. ↑ "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?" (in en-us). May 31, 2016. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2016/05/31/super-tasters-non-tasters-is-it-better-to-be-average/. 
  26. ↑ "Super-Tasting Science: Find Out If You're a "Supertaster"!". Science Buddies. Scientific American. December 27, 2012. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/super-tasting-science-find-out-if-youre-a-supertaster/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Taste and food preferences as predictors of dietary practices in young women". Public Health Nutrition 2 (4): 513–519. December 1999. doi:10.1017/S1368980099000695. PMID 10656470. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 "Genetic taste markers and food preferences". Drug Metabolism and Disposition 29 (4 Pt 2): 535–538. April 2001. PMID 11259346. http://dmd.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11259346. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "Bitter taste markers explain variability in vegetable sweetness, bitterness, and intake". Physiology & Behavior 87 (2): 304–313. February 2006. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.10.018. PMID 16368118. 
  30. ↑ "Variability in a taste-receptor gene determines whether we taste toxins in food". Current Biology 16 (18): R792–R794. September 2006. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.049. PMID 16979544. 
  31. ↑ "Health Report – 22/12/1997: Super Tasters". ABC More. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 7 January 1998. http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/super-tasters/3373896. 
  32. ↑ "Love Salt? You Might Be a "Supertaster"". Health.com. 16 June 2010. http://news.health.com/2010/06/16/salt-supertasters/. 

Further reading

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