Religion:Muslim Hebraists

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Short description: Field of Islamic studies


Muslim Hebraists (Arabic: المسلمون العبرازيم) are Muslims who use the Bible, generally referred to in Qur'anic studies as the Tawrat and the Injil, to interpret the Qur'an.[1][2] Muslim Hebraists allow intertextual studies between the Islamic holy books, and incorporate biblical material in Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir),[3][4][5] often exploring the Qur'an's allusions to biblical narratives and concepts that are presented without full explanation.[6] This differs from scholarly conventions which only uses the Bible for polemic or apologetic purposes.[7]

The Islamic methodology of tafsir al-Qur'an bi-l-Kitab (Arabic: تفسير القرآن بالكتاب) refers to interpreting the Qur'an with/through the Bible.[2] This approach adopts canonical Arabic versions of the Bible, including the Tawrat and the Injil, both to illuminate and to add exegetical depth to the reading of the Qur'an.[8]

History

Al_biruni_28-02-2010
Iranian polymath al-Biruni, described by historian Walter J. Fischel as the "greatest Muslim Hebraist"[9]

In the early centuries of Islam, Biblical texts were more commonly used by Muslims to benefit Islamic arguments than criticized for being corrupted, a practice that contradicts widespread contemporary views. The companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (d. 632 CE), Ubayy ibn Ka'b (d. 649 CE), received compliments and praises from Muhammad, and was competent in the Torah, the Gospel, and the Qur'an.[10] Similarly, the Yememite Jewish Muslim convert Ka'b al-Ahbar (d. 652/656 CE) taught Jewish traditions and explained the verses of the Qur'an and related them to the Torah. He also taught the Torah in the Mosque of Medina.[11] The number of companions of Muhammad who asked Ka'b of the meaning of the verses of the Qur'an included Umar ibn Al-Khattab (d. 644 CE), Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661 CE), Abu Hurayra (d. 679 CE), Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (d. 680 CE), and Ibn Abbas (d. 687 CE).[12] Known as "the owner of the two books" (the Qur'an and the Bible), Ka'b was a salaried preacher under Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656 CE).[13]

Among Ka'b's views was combining the directions of prayer of Moses and Muhammad when in Jerusalem. He argued that while praying in Jerusalem in the direction of Mecca, a Muslim had to direct himself at the same time to the Rock (now in the Dome of the Rock, which is situated on top of the site of the Second Temple, built to replace the destroyed Solomon's Temple).[14]

One of the earliest Muslims to make use of biblical material in Arabic translation was the polymath and Mu'tazilite theologian al-Jahiz (d. 868 CE), who wrote "Al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā". In it, he asserted that the text of the extant Hebrew Bible was trustworthy and a more reliable source than the Christian Gospels. He also discredited Jewish translations of the Old Testament as a source for Christian arguments that Jesus was the literal Son of God, and asserted that the anthropomorphizing content of existing Jewish versions resulted from poor translation.[15]

In the 11th century a much greater emphasis on the corruption of the Bible took hold, primarily through Ibn Hazm (d. 1064 CE), though views of both the utility and corruption of the Bible continued into the ensuing centuries. However, the renowned Muslim philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (d. 1037 CE), who lived during the time of Ibn Hazm, challenged this view and wrote of the impossibility of the Bible being falsified.[16] In the 14th century, textual corruption had become the majority view of Muslims. Some hadiths also allege textual corruption.[17]

The 15th-century Muslim Hebraist Ibrahim ibn Umar al-Biqa'i (d. 1480 CE)[18] did not prohibit the use of the Gospel or the Torah in interpreting the Qur'an. This can be seen in various verses in his tafsir (commentary of the Qur'an) titled Nazm al-Durar fi Tanasub al-Ayat wa-al-Suwar (Arabic: نـظـم الـدرر في تـنـاسـب الآيـات و الـسـور). For al-Biqa'i, quoting from the Torah, Gospel and other previous revelations of God is an act that is permitted by the Sharia. Al-Biqa'i drew extensively on the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament as sources to elucidate certain Qur'anic verses.[5][19][20][2] Al-Biqa'i notably emphasized the Ten Commandments, signifying a break from previous Muslim scholarly silence. He also quoted extensively from the parables of Jesus as told in the Gospels, apparently a first in any Islamic text, in order to illustrate the wisdom and prophecy of Jesus.[5] Al-Biqa'i also created an Islamic Diatessaron harmonizing the four Gospels with a focus on the Gospel of Mark.[21] He most frequently took the Gospel of Matthew as the leading narrative and supplemented it with the other accounts.[22] Al-Biqa'i believed that quoting from the previous revelations of God is only permitted in terms of stories and sagas of the past.[4] Aside from this, al-Biqa'i favoured the use of rhetorical and logical coherence as the primary tool for interpretation of the Qur'an.[19][20]

Al-Biqa'i critisized those who believed that most, or the whole of the Bible has been corrupted, describing them as excessive, extreme, arrogant and belligerent. Al-Biqa'i himself believed that corruption has tainted but a small part of the Bible, a view he also ascribed to Al-Shafi'i (d. 820 CE). For al-Biqa'i, the uncorrupted parts of the Bible were equal to the Qur'an, while the corrupted parts were similar to unauthentic hadiths.[5] Al-Biqa'i used biblical passages that he believed aligned with the Qur'an to clarify its narratives, such as the story of Noah's flood, which did not conflict with the Qur'anic version. In contrast, he rejected the Torah's account of Abraham's sacrifice, believing that it contradicted with the Qur'anic narrative.[23]

Intellectual figures who impacted al-Biqa'i's work included al-Haralli and al-Asbahani.[24] Al-Biqa'i also defended the use of quoting the Gospels and the Torah due to the consensus of the Muslim community. He said that the tradition of intertextual quoting between the revelations of God or more specifically quoting the Torah and the Gospel, has become commonplace in the Muslim world. He also revealed that the tradition of quoting has become ijma' sukuti (silent agreement). This was evidenced by the number of commentaries that practiced quotation, including Tafsir al-Kashshaf written by al-Zamakhshari (d. 1143 CE), and Tafsir al-Kabir authored by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1209 CE).[4] Al-Biqa'i also stated that the Shafi'i mufti of Mecca supported his views and praised his work and was eager to obtain a copy of his Qur'anic commentary.[25]

According to al-Biruni (d. 1052 CE), another Muslim Hebraist,[9] the Hebrew Bible is "comparatively free from confusion" whereas the Greek Septuagint is garbled to a greater extent.[26] Al-Biruni made a distinction between the "three copies of the Torah": the revealed Hebrew Torah of the Jews, the translated "Torah of the Seventy" (Septuagint) which the Christians relied on, and the "Torah of the Samaritans".[27] In his book Chronology of Ancient Nations, al-Biruni quoted from the Torah, such as from the Book of Exodus, the Book of Leviticus, and the Book of Deuteronomy, stating that they were commands and sayings of God.[28] At the same time, he was critical of specific Christian interpretations of certain biblical passages, such as Daniel 9:24-27, dismissing both Jewish and Christian interpretations related to messianic prophecies.[29]

Al-Biruni argued that the process of translation from the original Hebrew of the Jewish scripture to the Syriac texts of the Christians, such as the Peshitta, had altered the meaning of the words.[30] These alterations were described as deliberate. He noticed the differences between the four gospels and detailed how Christians explained the differences between the genealogies found in the Gospel of Matthew and Luke. He also spoke of other gospels which the Marcionites, Bardesanites and Manicheans possessed and their contradictory nature. As he considered these to be different recessions of the Gospel he argued in summary that they were of little value.[31] As a result, al-Biruni had more confidence in the Torah than in the Christian sources due to the translations the latter made from the original.[32] Nevertheless, al-Biruni believed that the existing gospels still contained genuine parts of the Injeel and could serve as a historical source. Thus, al-Biruni quoted and paraphrased verses from the gospels, including those in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of John, one example being the quote attributed to Jesus: "Do not mind the fury of kings in speaking the truth before them. They only possess your body, but they have no power over your soul".[33]

Al-Biruni was as unequivocal in rejecting beliefs unacceptable to Muslims as he was in condemning unfair criticism of other faiths, such as Christianity. Though he criticised the Trinity, he believed that the Torah and the Gospel use the words "father" and "son" in a metaphorical, as well as a literal, sense.[34]

Modern period

Syed Ahmad Khan, author of Tabyin Al-Kalam, which stands out as one of a very few academic studies of the Bible undertaken by Muslim scholars[35]

In the 19th century, Syed Ahmad Khan (d. 1898 CE) wrote a Muslim commentary on the Tawrat and the Injeel titled Tabyin Al-Kalam, fit tafsir al-Tawrat wal-Injil ala millat-al-Islam, which is considered the first systematic effort at interfaith dialogue in India. The commentary aimed to bridge Muslim-Christian divides after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, highlighting commonalities, and viewing the Tawrat, the Injeel, and the Qur'an as divine. It also uses the Islamic theological discipline of Kalam (rational inquiry) to address perceived contradictions between the Qur'an, the Tawrat, and the Injeel (specifically the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew).[36][37] The commentary's impact on Muslim-Christian relations was significant, yet limited to elite intellectual circles.[38]

Syed's reformist program included a rationalist, neo-Mu'tazilite understanding of Islamic scripture, questioning much of the corpus of Hadith as either apocryphal or relevant only to prophet Muhammad's day and age, rejecting the validity of ijma (consensus), broadening the horizon of ijtihad (independent reasoning), and interpreting Biblical scripture from a sympathetic Muslim point of view.[39]

In the 21st century, academic approaches have demonstrated inter-textual relationships between the Qur'an and the Bible, and a growing number of Muslim scholars of the Bible accept these scriptures.[40] These include Abdullah Saeed, Jerusha Lamptey, Farid Esack and Abdulla Galadari, who uniformly maintain that the foundational tenets of the religion of Islam are preserved and discernible in preceding scriptures. Consequently, they uphold the authoritative validity, authenticity and enduring relevance of the Tawrat, the Injeel, the Zabur and the Scrolls of Abraham.[41]

Galadari proposed a method for Qur'anic hermeneutics that takes into account intertextual polysemy in establishing inner-Qur'anic and intra-Qur'anic-Biblical allusions by looking into the polysemous nature of the Arabic terms used and how they are related to its usage in other instances.[42] For example, it gives insight into how the Qibla passages in the Qur'an are in direct engagement with the Shema' passages in the Book of Deuteronomy and its Talmudic commentary.[43]

Notable individuals

Notable Muslim mufassirun (commentators) or philosophers of the Bible and Qur'an who have weaved biblical texts together with Qur'anic ones:

References

  1. ↑ Saleh, Walid A. (2008). "A Fifteenth-Century Muslim Hebraist: Al-Biqāʿī and His Defense of Using the Bible to Interpret the Qurʾān". Speculum 83 (3): 629–654. doi:10.1017/S0038713400014615. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1017/S0038713400014615. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 McCoy, R. Michael (2021-09-08) (in en). Interpreting the Qurʾān with the Bible (Tafsīr al-Qurʾān bi-l-Kitāb). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-46682-1. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004466821/front-8.xml. 
  3. ↑ Christian W. Troll. "Bible and Qur'an in Dialogue". https://www.sankt-georgen.de/fileadmin/user_upload/personen/Troll/troll37.pdf. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Umar Albiqa’i, Ibrahim (June 1, 2023). "Embrassing previous traditions through intertextual interpretation". Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel Surabaya 13. https://jurnalfuf.uinsa.ac.id/index.php/mutawatir/article/download/2288/1432. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "A Fifteenth-Century Muslim Hebraist: Al-Biqā'ī and His Defense of Using the Bible to Interpret the Qur'ān". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231937216. 
  6. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290776048_The_Qur'an_and_its_Biblical_Subtext
  7. ↑ Dayeh, Islam (2008). "In Defense of the Bible: A Critical Edition and an Introduction to al-Biqāʿī's Bible Treatise. by Walid Saleh. Brill: Leiden & Boston, 2008. Pp. 224 + viii. € 99.00 / US$ 147.00.". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 10 (2): 101–106. doi:10.3366/E146535910900045X. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/full/10.3366/E146535910900045X. 
  8. ↑ "Preface". Interpreting the Qurʾān with the Bible (Tafsīr al-Qurʾān bi-l-Kitāb). Brill. 8 September 2021. ISBN 978-90-04-46682-1. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004466821/front-8.xml. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Khanbaghi, Aptin (22 February 2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-85771-266-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=l7WKDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Hebraist&pg=PA47. 
  10. ↑ "Ubayy bin Ka'b (R.a.) » Questions on Islam". https://questionsonislam.com/article/ubayy-bin-kab-ra. 
  11. ↑ Porter, Stanley E. (24 January 2007). Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-63557-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=qJaEAgAAQBAJ&dq=Kab+al-Ahbar+taught+the+Torah+in+the+Madina+mosque&pg=PA171. 
  12. ↑ Kusuma, Hamdan Hadi; Ahmad, Nur; Zaki, Nasrul Fahmi; Rahim, Robbi (14 October 2020). ICON-ISHIC 2020: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Islamic History and Civilization, ICON-ISHIC 2020, 14 October, Semarang, Indonesia. European Alliance for Innovation. ISBN 978-1-63190-289-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=3fAgEAAAQBAJ&dq=Ka%27b+al-Ahbar+%7C+Torah&pg=PA304. 
  13. ↑ https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kab-al-ahbar
  14. ↑ https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kab-al-ahbar
  15. ↑ Gibson, Nathan P. (2017). "A Mid-Ninth-Century Arabic Translation of Isaiah? Glimpses from al-Jāḥiẓ". Senses of Scripture, Treasures of Tradition. pp. 325–369. doi:10.1163/9789004347403_015. ISBN 978-90-04-34740-3. https://www.academia.edu/30958504. 
  16. ↑ "Handling Muslim Objections, Part 1: "The Bible Has Been Corrupted"". 3 January 2024. https://www.reachingmuslimpeoples.com/post/handling-muslim-objections-no-1-the-bible-has-been-corrupted. 
  17. ↑ "Early Muslims and the Bible | Bible Interp". https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/early-muslims-and-bible. 
  18. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231937216_A_Fifteenth-Century_Muslim_Hebraist_Al-Biqa'i_and_His_Defense_of_Using_the_Bible_to_Interpret_the_Qur'an
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Saleh, Walid (30 September 2008). In Defense of the Bible: A Critical Edition and an Introduction to al-Biqāʿī's Bible Treatise. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-3378-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=VUSwCQAAQBAJ. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 al-Biqa'i (2006). Ghalib al-Mahdi, A.R.. ed. Nazm al-Durar fi Tanasub al-Ayat wa-al-Suwar. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al Kutub Al Ilmiyah. ISBN 9782745151339. 
  21. ↑ Saleh, Walid. "An Islamic Diatessaron: Al-Biqa'i's Harmony of the Four Gospels". https://www.academia.edu/1921342. 
  22. ↑ Dayeh, Islam (2008). "In Defense of the Bible: A Critical Edition and an Introduction to al-Biqāʿī's Bible Treatise. by Walid Saleh. Brill: Leiden & Boston, 2008. Pp. 224 + viii. € 99.00 / US$ 147.00.". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 10 (2): 101–106. doi:10.3366/E146535910900045X. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/full/10.3366/E146535910900045X. 
  23. ↑ Halil, Hüseyin (2024). "Exegesis of the Qurʾān with the biblical and post-biblical literature". HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies 80. doi:10.4102/hts.v80i1.10144. 
  24. ↑ Saleh, Walid A. (2008). In Defense of the Bible: A Critical Edition and an Introduction to al-Biqa'i's Bible Treatise. Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. 
  25. ↑ Galadari, Abdulla (20 February 2020). Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-15210-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=j_9aEAAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Hebraist&pg=PA182. 
  26. ↑ "The Four Kingdom Schema and the Seventy Weeks in the Arabic Reception of Daniel". https://brill.com/display/book/9789004443280/BP000018.xml#FN180075. 
  27. ↑ "The chronology of ancient nations; an english version of the Arabic text of the Athâr-ul-Bâkiya of Albîrûnî, or "Vestiges of the past"". 1879. https://archive.org/details/chronologyofanci00biru. 
  28. ↑ "The chronology of ancient nations; an english version of the Arabic text of the Athâr-ul-Bâkiya of Albîrûnî, or "Vestiges of the past"". 1879. https://archive.org/details/chronologyofanci00biru. 
  29. ↑ "The Four Kingdom Schema and the Seventy Weeks in the Arabic Reception of Daniel". https://brill.com/display/book/9789004443280/BP000018.xml#FN180075. 
  30. ↑ "The chronology of ancient nations; an english version of the Arabic text of the Athâr-ul-Bâkiya of Albîrûnî, or "Vestiges of the past"". 1879. https://archive.org/details/chronologyofanci00biru. 
  31. ↑ "Muslim Evangelism | Discussion of Islam, Muhammad & the Quran / The Injil in Islamic thinking". https://www.message4muslims.org.uk/muslim-doctrines/the-injil-in-islamic-thinking. 
  32. ↑ Bjørnbekk, Vibeke Moe (June 17, 2024). Narratives about Jews among Muslims in Norway: A qualitative interview study. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-132941-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=BVMHEQAAQBAJ&dq=al+biruni+on+bible+corruption+translations&pg=PT287. 
  33. ↑ Starr, S. Frederick (December 5, 2009). "Rediscovering Central Asia". The Wilson Quarterly: 33–43. https://www.purplemotes.net/2012/12/09/al-birunis-quest-for-truth-encompassed-religions-and-natures/. 
  34. ↑ "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN vii. History of Religions". https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/biruni-abu-rayhan-vii/. 
  35. ↑ "The Muslim World Review". https://www.themwr.org/review/tabyin-al-kalam-the-gospel-according-to-sir-syed-ahmad-khan-1817-1898. 
  36. ↑ "Imtezaaj, Urdu Research Journal, UOK - Welcome". http://imtezaaj.uok.edu.pk/website/journal/article/5de2958ee9856/abstract. 
  37. ↑ Howard, Damian (2011-03-08) (in en). Being Human in Islam: The Impact of the Evolutionary Worldview. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-82026-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=u3GrAgAAQBAJ&dq=Tabyin-ul-kalam&pg=PT223. 
  38. ↑ Guenther, Alan M. (2011). "Christian Responses to Ahmad Khan's Commentary on the Bible". Comparative Islamic Studies 6 (1–2): 67–100. doi:10.1558/CIS.V6I1-2.67. https://www.academia.edu/5598966. 
  39. ↑ "Sayyid Ahmad Khan". https://mrmo.org/islamic-reformers/sayyid-ahmad-khan/. 
  40. ↑ https://muse.jhu.edu/article/963980
  41. ↑ "Re-examining the Accusation of Corruption in Previous Scriptures: Contextual and Comparative Approaches by Contemporary Islamic Scholars | V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam". https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/va-mohamad-ashrof-new-age-islam/re-examining-accusation-corruption-previous-scriptures-contextual-comparative-approaches-contemporary-islamic-scholars/d/133786. 
  42. ↑ Galadari, Abdulla (2018-08-09). Qur'anic hermeneutics : between science, history, and the Bible. London, England. ISBN 9781350070035. OCLC 1042329197. 
  43. ↑ Galadari, Abdulla (2016). "The Qibla: An Allusion to the Shema?". Comparative Islamic Studies 9 (2): 165–194. doi:10.1558/cis.v9i2.20101. ISSN 1743-1638. 
  44. ↑ "Ubayy bin Ka'b (R.a.) » Questions on Islam". https://questionsonislam.com/article/ubayy-bin-kab-ra. 
  45. ↑ Kusuma, Hamdan Hadi; Ahmad, Nur; Zaki, Nasrul Fahmi; Rahim, Robbi (14 October 2020). ICON-ISHIC 2020: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Islamic History and Civilization, ICON-ISHIC 2020, 14 October, Semarang, Indonesia. European Alliance for Innovation. ISBN 978-1-63190-289-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=3fAgEAAAQBAJ&dq=Ka%27b+al-Ahbar+%7C+Torah&pg=PA304. 
  46. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231937216_A_Fifteenth-Century_Muslim_Hebraist_Al-Biqa'i_and_His_Defense_of_Using_the_Bible_to_Interpret_the_Qur'an
  47. ↑ Gibson, Nathan P. (2017). "A Mid-Ninth-Century Arabic Translation of Isaiah? Glimpses from al-Jāḥiẓ". Senses of Scripture, Treasures of Tradition. pp. 325–369. doi:10.1163/9789004347403_015. ISBN 978-90-04-34740-3. https://www.academia.edu/30958504. 
  48. ↑ Mc Laughlin, Fiona (2018). "Fallou Ngom, Muslims beyond the Arab World: The Odyssey of ʿAjamī and the Murīdiyya, AAR Religion, Culture, and History (New York: American Academy of Religion and Oxford University Press, 2016). Pp. 336. $105.00 cloth. ISBN: 9780190279868". International Journal of Middle East Studies 50 (4): 826–828. doi:10.1017/S0020743818001083. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/fallou-ngom-muslims-beyond-the-arab-world-the-odyssey-of-ajami-and-the-muridiyya-aar-religion-culture-and-history-new-york-american-academy-of-religion-and-oxford-university-press-2016-pp-336-10500-cloth-isbn-9780190279868/1BFAB0E589221E16BE3172407BF75DD1. 
  49. ↑ Casewit, Yousef (27 April 2017). The Mystics of al-Andalus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-18467-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=T9AoDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Hebraist&pg=PA249. 
  50. ↑ Casewit, Yousef (2016). "A Muslim Scholar of the Bible: Prooftexts from Genesis and Matthew in the Qur'an Commentary of Ibn Barrajān of Seville (D. 536/1141)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 18: 1–48. doi:10.3366/jqs.2016.0221. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/jqs.2016.0221. 
  51. ↑ Casewit, Yousef (27 April 2017). The Mystics of al-Andalus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-18467-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=T9AoDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Hebraist&pg=PA249. 
  52. ↑ Mc Laughlin, Fiona (2018). "Fallou Ngom, Muslims beyond the Arab World: The Odyssey of ʿAjamī and the Murīdiyya, AAR Religion, Culture, and History (New York: American Academy of Religion and Oxford University Press, 2016). Pp. 336. $105.00 cloth. ISBN: 9780190279868". International Journal of Middle East Studies 50 (4): 826–828. doi:10.1017/S0020743818001083. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/fallou-ngom-muslims-beyond-the-arab-world-the-odyssey-of-ajami-and-the-muridiyya-aar-religion-culture-and-history-new-york-american-academy-of-religion-and-oxford-university-press-2016-pp-336-10500-cloth-isbn-9780190279868/1BFAB0E589221E16BE3172407BF75DD1. 
  53. ↑ Mc Laughlin, Fiona (2018). "Fallou Ngom, Muslims beyond the Arab World: The Odyssey of ʿAjamī and the Murīdiyya, AAR Religion, Culture, and History (New York: American Academy of Religion and Oxford University Press, 2016). Pp. 336. $105.00 cloth. ISBN: 9780190279868". International Journal of Middle East Studies 50 (4): 826–828. doi:10.1017/S0020743818001083. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/fallou-ngom-muslims-beyond-the-arab-world-the-odyssey-of-ajami-and-the-muridiyya-aar-religion-culture-and-history-new-york-american-academy-of-religion-and-oxford-university-press-2016-pp-336-10500-cloth-isbn-9780190279868/1BFAB0E589221E16BE3172407BF75DD1. 
  54. ↑ Casewit, Yousef (27 April 2017). The Mystics of al-Andalus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-18467-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=T9AoDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Hebraist&pg=PA249. 
  55. ↑ Adang, Camilla; Schmidtke, Sabine (24 July 2019). Muslim Perceptions and Receptions of the Bible: Texts and Studies. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-948488-21-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=bJelDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muslim+Perceptions+and+Receptions+of+the+Bible+-+Ibn+Qutayba&pg=PA22. 
  56. ↑ "Imtezaaj, Urdu Research Journal, UOK - Welcome". http://imtezaaj.uok.edu.pk/website/journal/article/5de2958ee9856/abstract. 
  57. ↑ Howard, Damian (2011-03-08) (in en). Being Human in Islam: The Impact of the Evolutionary Worldview. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-82026-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=u3GrAgAAQBAJ&dq=Tabyin-ul-kalam&pg=PT223. 
  58. ↑ "Sayyid Ahmad Khan". https://mrmo.org/islamic-reformers/sayyid-ahmad-khan/. 
  59. ↑ Galadari, Abdulla (2016). Qurʾanic Hermeneutics. doi:10.5040/9781350070059. ISBN 978-1-350-07005-9. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/58813. 



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