Social:Diversity, equity, and inclusion

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Short description: Organizational equality training term

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (usually abbreviated DEI) are organizational frameworks which seek to promote "the fair treatment and full participation of all people", particularly groups "who have historically been underrepresented or subject to discrimination" on the basis of identity or disability.[1] These three notions (diversity, equity, and inclusion) together represent "three closely linked values" which organizations seek to institutionalize through DEI frameworks.[2] Some experts say diversity and inclusion should be decoupled in some cases.[3] Some frameworks, primarily in United Kingdom , substitute the notion of "equity" with equality: equality, diversity, inclusion (EDI).[4][5][6] Other variations include diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging (DEIB),[7][8][9] justice, equity, diversity and inclusion (JEDI or EDIJ),[10][11] or diversity, equity, inclusion and access (IDEA, DEIA or DEAI).[12][13][14]

Diversity refers to the presence of variety within the organizational workforce, such as in identity (i.e. gender, culture, ethnicity, religion, disability, class etc.), age or opinion.[2][15] Equity refers to concepts of fairness and justice, such as fair compensation.[15] More specifically, equity usually also includes a focus on societal disparities and allocating resources and "decision making authority to groups that have historically been disadvantaged",[16] and taking "into consideration a person's unique circumstances, adjusting treatment accordingly so that the end result is equal."[2] Finally, inclusion refers to creating an organizational culture that creates an experience where "all employees feel their voices will be heard",[2] and a sense of belonging and integration.[15][17]

DEI is most often used to describe certain "training" efforts, such as diversity training. Though DEI is best known as a form of corporate training, it also finds implementation within many types of organizations, such as within academia, schools, and hospitals.[18][19]

In recent years, DEI efforts and policies have generated criticism, some directed at the specific effectiveness of its tools, such as diversity training, its effect on free speech and academic freedom, as well as more broadly attracting criticism on political or philosophical grounds.

History

Further information: Social:Multicultural and diversity management

DEI policy emerged from Affirmative Action in the United States.[20] The legal term "affirmative action" was first used in "Executive Order No. 10925",[21] signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961, which included a provision that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated [fairly] during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".[22] It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In September 1965, President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to "hire without regard to race, religion and national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin."[23] The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Neither executive order nor The Civil Rights Act authorized group preferences. The Senate floor manager of the bill, Senator Hubert Humphrey, declared that the bill “would prohibit preferential treatment for any particular group” adding “I will eat my hat if this leads to racial quotas.” [24] However affirmative action in practice would eventually become synonymous with preferences, goals and quotas as upheld or struck down by Supreme Court decisions even though no law had been passed explicitly permitting discrimination in favor of disadvantaged groups. Some state laws explicitly banned racial preferences, and in response some laws have failed attempting to explicitly legalize race preferences.

Affirmative action is intended to alleviate under-representation and to promote the opportunities of defined minority groups within a society to give them equal access to that of the majority population.[25] The philosophical basis of the policy has various rationales, including but not limited to compensation for past discrimination, correction of current discrimination, and the diversification of society.[26] It is often implemented in governmental and educational settings to ensure that designated groups within a society can participate in all promotional, educational, and training opportunities.[27]

The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is to help compensate for past discrimination, persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture,[28] and to address existing discrimination.[29] More recently concepts have moved beyond discrimination to include diversity, equity and inclusion as motives for preferring historically underrepresented groups.

In the famous Bakke decision of 1978, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, diversity now became a factor in constitutional law. The Supreme Court ruled quotas were illegal but it was allowable to consider race as a plus factor when trying to foster "diversity" in their classes.[30] [31]

Diversity themes gained momentum in the mid-1980s. At a time when President Ronald Reagan threatened to dismantle equality and affirmative action laws in the 1980s, equality and affirmative action professionals employed by US firms along with equality consultants, engaged in establishing the argument that a diverse workforce should be seen as a competitive advantage rather than just as a legal constraint. Basically, their message was, do not promote diversity because it is a legal mandate, but because it is good for business . From then on, researchers started to test a number of hypotheses on the business benefits of diversity and of diversity management, known as the business case of diversity.[32]

The presence of multicultural and diversity management in the workplace has been depicted as the existence of conceptual and operational policies and programs within the organizations that ensure that the various groups that exist in the societal spectrum are able to effectively participate in the various levels that exist in the organizations.[33]

In 2003 corporations spent $8 billion annually on diversity. After the election of Donald Trump in 2016 and the ascent of the #MeToo and Black Lives Matter movements, Time (magazine) magazine stated in 2019 that the DEI industry had "exploded" in size.[34] Within academia, a 2019 survey found that spending on DEI efforts had increased 27 percent over the five preceding academic years.[35]

One 2020 estimate placed the size of the global diversity and inclusion market at $7.5 billion, of which $3.4 billion was in the United States, projecting it to reach $17.2 billion by 2027.[36] DEI is more common than D&I, and represents many different methodologies.

In 2021, New York magazine stated "the business became astronomically larger than ever" after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020.[37] The Economist has also stated that surveys of international companies indicate that the number of people hired for jobs with "diversity" or "inclusion" in the title more than quadrupled since 2010.[38]

As of 2024, affirmative action rhetoric has been increasingly replaced by emphasis on Diversity, equity, and inclusion, and nine states explicitly ban its use in the employment process.[39][40] The Supreme Court in 2023 explicitly rejected affirmative action regarding race in college admissions in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard. The Court held that affirmative action programs "lack sufficiently focused and measurable objectives warranting the use of race, unavoidably employ race in a negative manner, involve racial stereotyping, and lack meaningful end points. We have never permitted admissions programs to work in that way, and we will not do so today".[41][42][43]

Methods and arguments

In a 2018 article, proponents of DEI argued that because businesses and corporations exist within a larger world, they cannot be completely separated from the issues that exist in society. Therefore, the authors argue the need for DEI to improve coworker relations and teamwork.[44] Through a DEI plan, organizations outline measures to be taken, including recruiting and retaining personnel, fostering effective communication channels, imparting relevant training, and regulating workplace conduct.[45]

As of 2022 many academic institutions in the US have also started making commitments to DEI in different ways, including creating documents, programs and appointing dedicated staff members especially in the US.[46][47] Many accreditation agencies now require supporting DEI.[48][49] As of 2014, information on DEI for both students and professors was widespread in colleges and universities, with many schools requiring training and meetings on the topic. Many scholarships and opportunities at universities even have a secondary purpose of encouraging diversity. Diversity in higher education can be difficult, with diverse students often feeling reduced to fulfilling a 'diversity quota,' which can carry a high emotional tax.[50]

DEI positions also exist with the goal of creating allies for public school students through resources and staff training, in order to support students facing social disparities.[51][52] Other proponents of allyship consider impromptu speaking a key skill for allies to operate on authenticity in everyday words and reactions.[53]

Criticism and controversy

According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, institutions are making defensive adjustments to the criticism. Some schools are removing the word “diversity” from titles of offices and jobs; some are closing campus spaces set up for students according to identity; some are ending diversity training; and some have stopped asking all faculty and staff members for written affirmations of their commitment to diversity.[54]

Diversity training

Further information: Social:Diversity training

Diversity training, a common tool used in DEI efforts, has repeatedly come under criticism as being ineffective or even counterproductive.[55][38][56][57] The Economist has stated that "the consensus now emerging among academics is that many anti-discrimination policies have no effect. What is worse, they often backfire".[38] A regular claim is that these efforts mainly work to protect against litigation.[38][58] It has also been criticized that there has been limited progress in achieving racial diversity in corporate leadership, particularly for Black professionals, due to a lack of diverse Chief Diversity Officers and a broad DEI focus that overlooks specific issues Black professionals face.[59] A 2007 study of 829 companies over 31 years showed "no positive effects in the average workplace" from diversity training, while the effect was negative where it was mandatory.[58] According to Harvard University professor in sociology and diversity researcher Frank Dobbin, "[o]n average, the typical all-hands-on-deck, 'everybody has to have diversity training' – that typical format in big companies doesn't have any positive effects on any historically underrepresented groups like black men or women, Hispanic men or women, Asian-American men or women or white women."[56]

Mandatory diversity statements within academia

The use of mandatory "diversity statements" within academia, wherein an applicant or faculty member outlines their "past contributions" and plans "for advancing diversity, equity and inclusion" if hired, has become controversial and sparked criticism.[60] The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE) has called such practices an attack on academic freedom, stating that "[v]ague or ideologically motivated DEI statement policies can too easily function as litmus tests for adherence to prevailing ideological views on DEI" and "penalize faculty for holding dissenting opinions on matters of public concern".[61] According to a 2022 survey conducted by the American Association of University Professors, one in five American colleges and universities include DEI criteria in tenure standards, including 45.6 percent of institutions with more than 5000 students.[62] Some universities have begun to weigh diversity statements heavily in hiring processes; for example, University of California, Berkeley eliminated three-quarters of applicants for five faculty positions in the life sciences exclusively on the basis of their diversity statements, in the hiring cycle of 2018–2019.[63]

The Academic Freedom Alliance (AFA) has called for the end of required diversity statements, stating it "encourages cynicism and dishonesty" and erases "the distinction between academic expertise and ideological conformity".[64] Social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, who resigned from the SPSP in protest against mandatory diversity statements, has stated that "most academic work has nothing to do with diversity, so these mandatory statements force many academics to betray their quasi-fiduciary duty to the truth by spinning, twisting, or otherwise inventing some tenuous connection to diversity".[65] Other criticisms include that it "devalues merit", is connected to affirmative action, that it violates the First Amendment, or function as loyalty oaths.[60][66][67]

A 1500-person survey conducted by FIRE reported that the issue is highly polarizing for faculty members, with half saying their view more closely aligns with the description of diversity statements as "a justifiable requirement for a job at a university", while the other half saw it as "an ideological litmus test that violates academic freedom".[68]

Several U.S. states have implemented legislation to ban mandatory diversity statements.[68]

Equity versus equality

According to DEI frameworks, "equity is different than equality in that equality implies treating everyone as if their experiences are exactly the same."[69][70] A common identification, especially among critics, is of equality as meaning "equality of opportunities" and equity as "equality of outcome".[71][72] Some have criticized this focus on equity rather than equality, arguing that the former runs contrary to a focus on merit or non-discrimination. Political scientist Charles Lipson has called "equity" a "mandate to discriminate", threatening the principle of "equality under the law",[73] while Canadian psychologist Jordan Peterson, a frequent critic of DEI, has called equity "the most egregious, self-righteous, historically-ignorant and dangerous" of the three titular notions of DEI.[74] The debate has also branched into the realm of politics. Commenting on Governor of Texas Greg Abbott calling DEI initiatives "illegal", a spokesperson for his office stated "[t]he issue is not diversity — the issue is that equity is not equality. Here in Texas, we give people a chance to advance based on talent and merit".[15]


Effects of DEI policies on free speech and academic freedom

In recent years, high-profile incidents of campus conflict have sparked debate about the effect of DEI on the campus environment, academic freedom and free speech.[75][76][77]

The 2021 cancelling of an MIT guest lecture by astrophysicist Dorian Abbot after he criticized DEI programs led to media attention and controversy.[78][79][80] As a result, MIT empaneled a committee to investigate the state of academic freedom at the university.[80]

The 2023 disruption of a talk by Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Kyle Duncan at Stanford Law School sparked criticism and discussion in the media, with many focusing on the role of Associate DEI Dean Tirien Steinbach, who joined protesters in denouncing Duncan's presence on campus.[81][82][83] In the wake of the incident, the editorial board of the Wall Street Journal opined that DEI offices have "become weapons to intimidate and limit speech".[84] Steinbach replied with "Diversity and Free Speech Can Coexist at Stanford", published in the Journal the following week.[85][86] Dean of Stanford Law School, Jenny S. Martínez, also published a ten-page document addressing the situation and clarifying Stanford's position on free speech. In it, Martinez stated that the university's commitment to DEI "can and should be implemented in ways that are consistent with its commitment to academic freedom and free speech" and that she believed that "the commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion actually means that we must protect free expression of all views."[87] She added that the commitment would not take the form of "having the school administration announce institutional positions on a wide range of current social and political issues, make frequent institutional statements about current news events, or exclude or condemn speakers who hold views on social and political issues with whom some or even many in our community disagree", criticizing this definition of an "inclusive environment" by stating it "can lead to creating and enforcing an institutional orthodoxy."[87]

In April 2023, a group of 29 scientists, including Nobel laureates Dan Shechtman and Arieh Warshel, published a paper which outlined what the authors see as a "clash in science between classical liberal values" and a "new postmodern worldview", which, they argue, is "enforced by 'Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion' (DEI) officers and bureaucracies" and "threatens the entire scientific enterprise."[88] Two of the authors, Anna Krylov and Jerry Coyne, subsequently argued in an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal that their emphasis on merit – "once anodyne and unobjectionable [...] now contentious and outré, even in the hard sciences" – led to its refusal by major journals and subsequent publication in the Journal of Controversial Ideas.[89]

The 2023 suicide of former Toronto principal Richard Bilkszto led to a new wave of controversy surrounding DEI in the workplace and its impact on freedom of expression.[90][91] Bilkszto had earlier filed a lawsuit against the Toronto District School Board in the wake of a 2021 incident at a DEI training seminar; Bilkszto was later diagnosed with "anxiety secondary to a workplace event", and claimed the session and its aftermath had destroyed his reputation. Bilkszto's lawyer has publicly linked this incident and its aftermath with his death.[90][91] In the wake of Bilkszto's death, Ontario minister of education, Stephen Lecce, stated he had asked for a review and "options to reform professional training and strengthen accountability on school boards so this never happens again", calling Bilkszto's allegations before his death "serious and disturbing".[90] Bilkszto's death generated international attention and renewed debate on DEI and freedom of speech.[92][93] According to The Globe and Mail, the incident has also been "seized on by a number of prominent right-wing commentators looking to roll-back [DEI] initiatives."[91] The anti-racism trainer involved in the incident has stated they welcome the review by Lecce, and stated that the incident has been "weaponized to discredit and suppress the work of people committed [to DEI]".[90][91]

Antisemitism

DEI has been accused of ignoring or even contributing to antisemitism.[94][95][96][97] According to Andria Spindel, of the Canadian Antisemitism Education Foundation, antisemitism has been largely ignored in the DEI curriculum.[98] The relationship between DEI and campus antisemitism came under further scrunity after the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel, and the subsequent war in Gaza.[99][100]

Tabia Lee, a former DEI director at De Anza College in California turned critic, has claimed that DEI frameworks foster antisemitism due to its "oppressors and the oppressed" dichotomy where "Jews are categorically placed in the oppressor category",[101] and described as "white oppressors".[102] She has claimed that her attempts to include Jews under the "DEI" umbrella was resisted.[103] When her critics asked the college trustees to oust her from her role, one counselor explicitly referenced her attempts to place Jewish students "on the same footing as marginalized groups".[103] The Brandeis Center likewise notes how the DEI committee at Stanford University alleged that "Jews, unlike other minority group[s], possess privilege and power, Jews and victims of Jew-hatred do not merit or necessitate the attention of the DEI committee", after two students complained about antisemitic incidents on campus.[104]

Following a wake of antisemitic incidents on American campuses in 2023, several Republican congressmen laid the blame at DEI, with Burgess Owens stating DEI programs "are anything but inclusive for Jews".[105] DEI's lack of inclusion for Jews, and contribution to fueling antisemitism, was similarly criticized by businessman Bill Ackman,[106] and columnist Heather Mac Donald.[107] Following the anti-semitism controversy at the University of Pennsylvania, one donor pulled a $100 million donation "because he thought the school was prioritizing D.E.I. over enhancing the business school's academic excellence."[108]

Politicization and ideology

DEI has according to some critics become a distinct ideology or "political agenda", leading to a politicization of universities.[109] CNN's Fareed Zakaria has criticized American universities for "[h]aving gone so far down the ideological path", that "these universities and these presidents cannot make the case clearly that at the center of a university is the free expression of ideas", opining that "[t]he most obvious lack of diversity at universities, political diversity, which clearly affects their ability to analyze many issues, is not addressed".[109] Historian Niall Ferguson has called DEI a "political agenda", and an "ideology of hierarchy", arguing that it "has to be recognized that DEI is like something out of Nineteen Eighty-Four. . . . It is a newspeak designed to achieve precisely the opposite of what those words appear to mean. Not diversity, but homogeneity of thought. Not equity, but profound iniquity and absence of due process for anybody who transgresses from the woke ideology. And as for inclusion, the whole process is one of exclusion of anybody unwilling to conform."[110] Ferguson has also drawn direct comparisons between American universities in the 2020s and the politicization of German universities in the 1920s.[111]

Disability community

According to some critics, DEI initiatives inadvertently sideline disabled people. Writing for The Conversation in 2017, college professor Stephen Friedman said that "organizations who are serious about DEI must adopt the frame of producing shared value where business and social goods exist side-by-side".[112] According to a Time article in 2023, "people with disabilities are being neglected".[113]

This view has been echoed by a number of DEI leaders and activists. Sara Hart Weir, the former president and CEO of the National Down Syndrome Society, and co-founder of the Commission for Disability Employment, argues that when deliberating on the vision of DEI success in the United States, policymakers and employers need to take proactive measures to engaging with people with disabilities who they historically ignored.[114] Corinne Gray has argured that "if you embrace diversity, but ignore disability, you're doing it wrong."[115]

Political and public criticism

Entertainment and media

Within the film industry, several prominent actors and directors have criticized recently implemented diversity standards, such as at the Academy Awards. Beginning in 2024, to be eligible for a best-picture nomination at the Academy Awards, a film must meet two of four diversity standards in order to qualify.[116]

Actor Richard Dreyfuss stated the Academy Award's diversity and inclusion standards "make me vomit", arguing that art should not be morally legislated.[117] Several major film directors, who are voting members of the Academy Awards, anonymously expressed their opposition to the new diversity standards to The New York Post, with one describing them as "contrived".[118] Film critic Armond White attacked the new standards as "progressive fascism", comparing them to the Hays Code.[119]

Conservative media sources, such as National Review, have also been frequent critics of DEI, with contributor George Leff arguing it is authoritarian and anti-meritocratic.[120]

Politics

In the 2020s, DEI came into the spotlight in American politics, especially in state legislatures in Texas and other Republican-controlled states.[121] Several states are considering or have passed legislation targeting DEI in public institutions. In March 2023, the Texas House of Representatives passed a bill with a rider banning the use of state funds for DEI programs in universities and colleges.[122] In May 2023, Texas passed legislation banning offices and programs promoting DEI at publicly funded colleges and universities.[123][124] In Iowa, a bill to ban spending on DEI in public universities was also advanced in March 2023.[125]

Several prominent Republicans positioned themselves as critics, including Florida Governor Ron DeSantis,[126] Texas Governor Greg Abbott,[15] and 2024 presidential candidate Vivek Ramaswamy.[127]

Another significant point of political controversy has been the implementation of DEI frameworks in the military, with Republican politicians frequently criticizing the efforts as "divisive" and as harming military efficiency and recruiting, while Democrats have defended it as beneficial and strengthening.[128] On 14 July 2023, the House of Representatives voted to ban all DEI offices and initiatives within the Pentagon and military along partisan lines, with all Democrats and four Republican members also opposing. The Senate, under Democratic control, has not acted.[129][130]

Public boycotts

Political opposition to corporate DEI efforts in the United States, particularly marketing criticized as "woke", have led to calls for boycotts of certain companies by conservative activists and politicians; with notable examples being Disney, Target, Anheuser-Busch,[131] and Chick-fil-A.[132][133] Commentator Jonathan Turley of The Hill described such boycotts as possessing "some success".[134]

Some of these companies' responses to the controversies have, in turn, sparked criticism from progressives of "walking back" or failing DEI commitments.[135][136]

Bans

In January 2024 the Florida Board of Education banned federal or state money being used toward DEI programs in universities.[137]

See also

References

  1. ↑ ""DEI" — on Dictionary.com" (in en). https://www.dictionary.com/browse/dei. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "What is diversity, equity, and inclusion?". McKinsey & Company. 17 August 2022. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/mckinsey-explainers/what-is-diversity-equity-and-inclusion. 
  3. ↑ Marabelli, Marco; Zaza, Sam; Masiero, Silvia; Chudoba, Kathy; Li, Lydia (2023). "Diversity, Equity and Inclusion in the AIS: Challenges and opportunities of remote conferences". Information Systems Journal 33 (6): 1370–1395. doi:10.1111/isj.12458. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/isj.12458. 
  4. ↑ ""EDI" in Collins Dictionary". Collins. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/edi. 
  5. ↑ "What does equality, diversity, and inclusion mean?". University of Edinburgh. 14 June 2022. https://www.ph.ed.ac.uk/equality-diversity-and-inclusion/about-edi/what-does-equality-diversity-and-inclusion-mean. 
  6. ↑ ""EDI" in Cambridge Dictionary". Cambridge University Press. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/edi?q=EDI. 
  7. ↑ Read, Bridget (26 May 2021). "Inside the Booming Diversity-Equity-and-Inclusion Industrial Complex" (in en-us). The Cut. https://www.thecut.com/article/diversity-equity-inclusion-industrial-companies.html. 
  8. ↑ "DIVERSITY, EQUITY, INCLUSION AND BELONGING (DEIB)". BI Norwegian Business School. https://www.bi.edu/about-bi/deib/. 
  9. ↑ "The Office of Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Belonging". University of Kansas. https://diversity.ku.edu/about. 
  10. ↑ Hammond, J. W.; Brownell, Sara E.; Kedharnath, Nita A.; Cheng, Susan J.; Byrd, W. Carson (23 September 2021). "Why the Term 'JEDI' Is Problematic for Describing Programs That Promote Justice, Equity, Diversity and Inclusion". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-the-term-jedi-is-problematic-for-describing-programs-that-promote-justice-equity-diversity-and-inclusion/. 
  11. ↑ "Office of Equity, Diversity, Inclusion, and Justice (EDIJ)". https://lesley.edu/department-search/office-of-diversity-equity-and-inclusion-dei. 
  12. ↑ "Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Access (IDEA)". Indiana Arts Commission. 30 April 2018. https://www.aam-us.org/programs/diversity-equity-accessibility-and-inclusion/facing-change-definitions/. 
  13. ↑ "Definitions of Diversity, Equity, Accessibility, and Inclusion". American Alliance of Museums. https://www.aam-us.org/programs/diversity-equity-accessibility-and-inclusion/facing-change-definitions/. 
  14. ↑ "Executive Order on Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in the Federal Workforce". whitehouse.gov. 25 June 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/06/25/executive-order-on-diversity-equity-inclusion-and-accessibility-in-the-federal-workforce/. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Alfonseca, Kiara (10 February 2023). "DEI: What does it mean and what is its purpose?". ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/dei-programs/story?id=97004455. 
  16. ↑ "Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Definitions". University of Washington. https://www.washington.edu/research/or/office-of-research-diversity-equity-and-inclusion/dei-definitions/. 
  17. ↑ "Diversity, Equity & Inclusion" (in en-US). https://codeforamerica.org/about-us/diversity-equity-inclusion/. 
  18. ↑ Grubbs, Vanessa (2020-07-23). "Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion That Matter". New England Journal of Medicine 383 (4): e25. doi:10.1056/NEJMpv2022639. PMID 32649073. 
  19. ↑ Rosenkranz, Kari M.; Arora, Tania K.; Termuhlen, Paula M.; Stain, Steven C.; Misra, Subhasis; Dent, Daniel; Nfonsam, Valentine (July 2021). "Diversity, Equity and Inclusion in Medicine: Why It Matters and How do We Achieve It?". Journal of Surgical Education 78 (4): 1058–1065. doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.11.013. PMID 33279427. 
  20. ↑ See the concluding chapter, "Demise of Affirmative Action in the Age of Diversity," in Terry H. Anderson, "The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (2004) pp.217-273.
  21. ↑ "President Kennedy's E.O.10925: Seedbed of Affirmative Action". Society for History in the Federal Government. http://shfg.org/resources/Documents/FH%202%20(2010)%20MacLaury.pdf. 
  22. ↑ A Brief History of Affirmative Action , University of California, Irvine (access date 16 May 2015)
  23. ↑ Executive Order 11246
  24. ↑ "Today's racial quotas? Senator Humphrey would've eaten his hat". Family News Network. January 20, 2022. https://ifamnews.com/en/it-is-time-for-senator-humphrey-to-eat-his-hat. 
  25. ↑ "Affirmative Action". Harvard Law School. http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/sharamkohan1/affirmative-action/. 
  26. ↑ Tierney, William G. (1997). "The Parameters of Affirmative Action: Equity and Excellence in the Academy". Review of Educational Research 67 (2): 165–196. doi:10.2307/1170625. ISSN 0034-6543. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170625. 
  27. ↑ "Equal Opportunity & Affirmative Action Policy Statement". http://www.chatham.edu/about/legal_nondiscrimination.cfm. 
  28. ↑ Sowell, Thomas (2004). Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, Yale University Press, ISBN:0-300-10199-6
  29. ↑ Affirmative Action. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1 April 2009. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/. 
  30. ↑ Steven M. Gillon, "The strange career of affirmative action: the Civil Rights Act of 1964" in his "That's Not What We Meant to Do": Reform and Its Unintended Consequences in Twentieth-Century America (WW Norton, 2000) p. 152.
  31. ↑ The Court ruled: “The diversity that furthers a compelling state interest encompasses a far broader array of qualifications and characteristics of which racial or ethnic origin is but a single though important element," quoted in Brent K., Nakamura, and Lauren B. Edelman, "Bakke at 40: How diversity matters in the employment context." UC Davis Law Review 52 (2018): 2627-2679 at p. 2629. online
  32. ↑ Erin Kelly, and Frank Dobbin, "How affirmative action became diversity management: Employer response to antidiscrimination law, 1961 to 1996." American Behavioral Scientist 41.7 (1998): 960-984. online
  33. ↑ "Is diversity management related to financial performance in family firms? performance has created the relevance for this concept". Family Business Review 28. 
  34. ↑ Newkirk, Pamela (10 October 2019). "Diversity Has Become a Booming Business. So Where Are the Results?". Time. https://time.com/5696943/diversity-business/. Retrieved 25 March 2023. 
  35. ↑ "An INSIGHT Investigation: Accounting for Just 0.5% of Higher Education's Budgets, Even Minimal Diversity Funding Supports Their Bottom Line". INSIGHT. 16 October 2019. https://www.insightintodiversity.com/an-insight-investigation-accounting-for-just-0-5-of-higher-educations-budgets-even-minimal-diversity-funding-supports-their-bottom-line/. 
  36. ↑ "Global Diversity and Inclusion (D&I) Industry". Global Industry Analysts. October 2022. https://www.reportlinker.com/p06219616/Global-Diversity-and-Inclusion-D-I-Industry.html?utm_source=GNW. 
  37. ↑ Bridget Read, "Reckoning with as Reckoning: Doing the Work at Work What are companies desperate for diversity consultants actually buying?" New York: The Cut, May 26, 2021 online.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 "Workplace diversity programmes often fail, or backfire". The Economist. 25 August 2022. https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2022/08/25/workplace-diversity-programmes-often-fail-or-backfire. Retrieved 26 March 2023. 
  39. ↑ Nino Monea, "Next on the Chopping Block: The Litigation Campaign against Race-Conscious Policies Beyond Affirmative Action in University Admissions." (SSRN 4440549, 2023) online
  40. ↑ Schwarzschild, Maimon and Heriot, Gail L., Race Preferences, Diversity, and Students for Fair Admissions: A New Day, a New Clarity (January 16, 2024). SMU Law Review, Forthcoming (2024), San Diego Legal Studies Paper No. 24-003, online
  41. ↑ Ariana Baio, "Supreme Court strikes down affirmative action, banning colleges from factoring race in admissions: In a 6 -3 decision, the Supreme Court ruled higher education institutions may not consider race as a factor in admissions" The Independent (29 June 2023) online
  42. ↑ Dan Morgan, "Supreme Court rejects affirmative action at colleges as unconstitutional" CNBC June 29, 2023 online
  43. ↑ Cara McClellan, "When Claims Collide: Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard and the Meaning of Discrimination." U of Penn Law School, Public Law Research Paper 23-20 (2023). online
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  45. ↑ Noah (2023-01-07). "Equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI) in the workplace" (in en-US). https://diversityandinclusive.com/equality-diversity-and-inclusion-edi-in-the-workplace/. 
  46. ↑ University, Carnegie Mellon. "Homepage - Diversity, Equity and Inclusion - Carnegie Mellon University" (in en). http://www.cmu.edu/diversity/index.html. 
  47. ↑ "Diversity, Equity and Inclusion - University of Houston". https://uh.edu/diversity-equity-inclusion/. 
  48. ↑ Bohanon, Mariah (2022-03-16). "DEI in Accreditation" (in en-US). https://www.insightintodiversity.com/dei-in-accreditation/. 
  49. ↑ "Diversity and Inclusion in the Standards | AACSB" (in en). https://www.aacsb.edu/educators/accreditation/business-accreditation/diversity. 
  50. ↑ Harris-Hasan, Alandra (9 October 2014). "What Is Really Going On: Black Graduate Students in Higher Education". Diverse Issues in Higher Education 31 (18): 58. https://www.diverseeducation.com/students/article/15095499/what-is-really-going-on-black-graduate-students-in-higher-ed. 
  51. ↑ Ph.D, Jay P. Greene. "Equity Elementary: "Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion" Staff in Public Schools" (in en). https://www.heritage.org/education/report/equity-elementary-diversity-equity-and-inclusion-staff-public-schools. 
  52. ↑ Keshri, Vikash Ranjan; Bhaumik, Soumyadeep (September 2022). "The feudal structure of global health and its implications for decolonisation". BMJ Global Health 7 (9): e010603. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2022-010603. PMID 36167407. 
  53. ↑ Obah Jr., Herbert (2023). "Black and Asian Allyship Through Impromptu Speaking". in Sha, Mandy. If we can do it, you can, too!. Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp. pp. 13–16. ISBN 9798379235413. https://www.amazon.com/CAN-YOU-TOO-Inspirations-award-winning/dp/B0C522W4Z5. 
  54. ↑ Alecia Taylor, "3 Ways That Anti-DEI Efforts Are Changing How Colleges Operate" Chronicle of Higher Education (January 18, 2024)
  55. ↑ Dobbin, Frank; Kalev, Alexandra (September 2018). "Why Doesn't Diversity Training Work? The Challenge for Industry and Academia". Anthropology Now (Taylor & Francis Online) 10 (2): 48–55. doi:10.1080/19428200.2018.1493182. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19428200.2018.1493182. Retrieved 26 March 2023. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Nathoo, Zulekha (17 June 2021). "Why ineffective diversity training won't go away". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210614-why-ineffective-diversity-training-wont-go-away. 
  57. ↑ Morrison, Richard (5 March 2022). "Commentary: Diversity training is unpopular because it doesn't work (but companies could change that)". Competitive Enterprise Institute. https://cei.org/opeds_articles/commentary-diversity-training-is-unpopular-because-it-doesnt-work-but-companies-could-change-that/. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Bregman, Peter (12 March 2012). "Diversity Training Doesn't Work". Harvard Business Reviews. https://hbr.org/2012/03/diversity-training-doesnt-work. 
  59. ↑ Brownlee, Dana (August 11, 2022). "This Is Why Corporate DEI Tragically Fails Many Black Professionals". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/danabrownlee/2022/08/11/this-is-why-corporate-dei-tragically-fails-many-black-professionals/?sh=4948ccbfefbc. 
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  65. ↑ Tuccille, J.D. (30 September 2022). "Mandated Diversity Statement Drives Jonathan Haidt To Quit Academic Society". Reason. https://reason.com/2022/09/30/mandated-diversity-statement-drives-jonathan-haidt-to-quit-academic-society/. 
  66. ↑ Camp, Emma (19 September 2022). "Want An Academic Job? Start Preparing Your DEI Statement.". Reason. https://reason.com/2022/09/19/want-an-academic-job-start-preparing-your-dei-statement/. 
  67. ↑ Sailer, John (7 September 2022). "Higher Ed's New Woke Loyalty Oaths". Tablet. https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/higher-ed-new-woke-loyalty-oaths-dei. 
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  69. ↑ "DEI Definitions". University of Iowa. https://diversity.uiowa.edu/resources/dei-definitions. 
  70. ↑ Murphy, Colleen (11 January 2023). "Equity vs. Equality: What's the Difference?". health.com. https://www.health.com/mind-body/health-diversity-inclusion/equity-vs-equality. 
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  77. ↑ Friedman, Jonathan (20 February 2020). "WHEN DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION CLASH WITH FREE SPEECH—AND WHY THEY DON'T HAVE TO". PEN America. https://pen.org/diversity-inclusion-clash-free-speech/. 
  78. ↑ Powell, Michael (21 October 2021). "M.I.T.'s Choice of Lecturer Ignited Criticism. So Did Its Decision to Cancel.". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/20/us/dorian-abbot-mit.html. 
  79. ↑ "Politics overshadowing scientific work". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/videos/tv/2021/10/23/geophysicist-canceled-at-mit-over-personal-politics.cnn. 
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  88. ↑ "Scientists Defend Merit in Science". indefenseofmerit.org. 28 April 2023. https://indefenseofmerit.org/. 
  89. ↑ Coyne, Jerry A.; Krylov, Anna I. (27 April 2023). "The 'Hurtful' Idea of Scientific Merit". Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-hurtful-idea-of-scientific-merit-controversy-nih-energy-research-f122f74d. 
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  92. ↑ "Education minister orders review into allegations of TDSB principal who died by suicide". The Canadian Press. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 25 July 2023. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/lecce-tdsb-principal-death-staff-review-1.6917432. 
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  94. ↑ Abrams, Chaya M.; Armeni, Kelsey (2023). "The Lived Experiences of Anti-Semitism Encountered by Jewish Students on University Campuses: A Phenomenological Study". American Journal of Qualitative Research 7 (3): 172–191. doi:10.29333/ajqr/13482. https://www.ajqr.org/download/the-lived-experiences-of-anti-semitism-encountered-by-jewish-students-on-university-campuses-a-13482.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2023. 
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  97. ↑ "Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Programming's Antisemitism Failures; Buffalo Shooting and Great Replacement Theory". American Jewish Committee. 19 May 2022. https://www.ajc.org/news/podcast/diversity-equity-and-inclusion-programmings-antisemitism-failures-buffalo-shooting-and-great. 
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  99. ↑ Goldfarb, Stanley (2 November 2023). "How DEI Inspires Jew Hatred". City Journal. https://www.city-journal.org/article/how-dei-inspires-jew-hatred. 
  100. ↑ Duggan, Laurel (31 October 2023). "The DEI industry has an antisemitism problem". UnHerd. https://unherd.com/thepost/the-dei-industry-has-an-antisemitism-problem/. 
  101. ↑ Carter, Ray (27 October 2023). "AMID DEI BACKDROP, OU STUDENTS CONDEMN ISRAEL". Oklahoma Council of Public Affairs. https://ocpathink.org/post/independent-journalism/amid-dei-backdrop-ou-students-condemn-israel. 
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  124. ↑ "Senate Bill 17". https://capitol.texas.gov/BillLookup/Text.aspx?LegSess=88R&Bill=SB17. 
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Further reading

  • Abawi, Zuhra E., and Ann E. Lopez, eds. The Effectiveness of Educational Policy for Bias-Free Teacher Hiring: Critical Insights to Enhance Diversity in the Canadian Teacher Workforce (Routledge, 2021)
  • Abu-Laban, Yasmeen, and Christina Gabriel. Selling diversity: Immigration, multiculturalism, employment equity, and globalization (U of Toronto Press, 2002), DEI in Canada online; see symposium on the book at Canadian Ethnic Studies 55.1 (2023): 125-145.
  • Anand, Rohini. Leading Global Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (2021), for multinational companies
  • Anderson, Terry H. The pursuit of fairness: a history of affirmative action (Oxford University Press, 2004), a standard scholarly history.
  • April, Kurt. "The new diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) realities and challenges." HR: The new agenda (2021): 119-132. online
  • Arsel, Zeynep, David Crockett, and Maura L. Scott. "Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the Journal of Consumer Research: A curation and research agenda." Journal of Consumer Research 48.5 (2022): 920-933. online
  • Barnett, Rachel. "Leading with meaning: Why diversity, equity, and inclusion matters in US higher education." Perspectives in Education 38.2 (2020): 20-35. online
  • Bendl, Regina, et al. eds. The Oxford handbook of diversity in organizations (Oxford UP, 2015) online
  • Byrd, Marilyn Y., and Chaunda L. Scott, eds. Diversity in the workforce: Current issues and emerging trends. (2024).online
  • Davis, Dr. Shirley. Diversity, Equity & Inclusion For Dummies (2022), wide-ranging manual to help new DEI officials in corporations.
  • Dobbin, Frank. Inventing equal opportunity (Princeton UP, 2009), scholarly history argues that Congress and the courts followed the lead of programs created by corporations.
  • "Elkins, Caroline, Frances Frei, and Anne Morriss. "Critics of D.E.I. Forget That It Works: Guest Essay," New York Times Jan 21, 2024.
  • Ferraro, Carla, Alicia Hemsley, and Sean Sands. "Embracing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI): Considerations and opportunities for brand managers." Business Horizons 66.4 (2023): 463-479.[1]
  • Fleming, Robert S. "Diversity, equity, and inclusion." in Preparing for a Successful Faculty Career: Achieving Career Excellence as a Faculty Member (Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024). 157-159. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50161-6_35
  • Harpalani, Vinay (November 2012). "Diversity within racial groups and the constitutionality of race-conscious admissions". University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 15 (2): 463–537. http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jcl/vol15/iss2/3/. 
  • Harrison, David A., et al. "Understanding attitudes toward affirmative action programs in employment: Summary and meta-analysis of 35 years of research." Journal of Applied Psychology 91#5 (2006): 1013+ online.
  • Holzer, Harry, and David Neumark. "Assessing affirmative action." Journal of Economic Literature 38.3 (2000): 483-568; summary of 200 studies on the actual effects. online
  • Iyer, Aarti. "Understanding advantaged groups' opposition to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) policies: The role of perceived threat." Social and Personality Psychology Compass 16.5 (2022): e12666. online
  • Kraus, Michael W., Brittany Torrez, and LaStarr Hollie. "How narratives of racial progress create barriers to diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations." Current opinion in psychology 43 (2022): 108-113. online
  • Monea, Nino. "Next on the Chopping Block: The Litigation Campaign against Race-Conscious Policies Beyond Affirmative Action in University Admissions." (SSRN 4440549, 2023) online
  • Nakamura, Brent K., and Lauren B. Edelman. "Bakke at 40: How diversity matters in the employment context." UC Davis Law Review 52 (2018): 2627-2679. online
  • Pierce, Jennifer. Racing for innocence: Whiteness, gender, and the backlash against affirmative action (Stanford University Press, 2012).online
  • Portocarrero, Sandra, and James T. Carter. "Diversity initiatives in the US workplace: A brief history, their intended and unintended consequences." Sociology Compass 16.7 (2022): e13001. online
  • Reza, Fawzia. Diversity and Inclusion in Educational Institutions (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2022)
  • Roberson, Quinetta M. ed. The Oxford Handbook of Diversity and Work (2013) online
  • Rubio, Philip F. A History of Affirmative Action, 1619-2000 (University Press of Mississippi, 2001), a Black perspective
  • Russell, Princess M. "From Affirmative Action to Diversity and Inclusion: Exploring Diversification Efforts among African American Faculty at Ivy League Universities in a State of Anti-affirmative Action Regulatory Environment" (EdD dissertation,  Northcentral University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2022. 28964683).
  • Russen, Michelle, and Mary Dawson. "Which should come first? Examining diversity, equity and inclusion." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 36.1 (2024): 25-40. online
  • Sanger, Catherine Shea et al. eds. International Diversity and Inclusion: Innovative Higher Education in Asia (Palgrave MacMillan. 2020)
  • Schwarzschild, Maimon and Heriot, Gail L. "Race Preferences, Diversity, and Students for Fair Admissions: A New Day, a New Clarity" (January 16, 2024). SMU Law Review, Forthcoming (2024), San Diego Legal Studies Paper No. 24-003, online
  • Smithsimon, Gregory. Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism (NYU Press, 2022) online.
  • Soucek, Brian. "Diversity Statements." UC Davis Law Review 55#4 (2021): 1989-2062. Controversy regarding statements required of university faculty. online
  • Stephenson, Jacqueline H. et al eds. Diversity, Equality, and Inclusion in Caribbean Organisations and Society: An Exploration of Work, Employment, Education, and the Law (Springer International, 2020)
  • Tatli, Ahu. "A multi‐layered exploration of the diversity management field: diversity discourses, practices and practitioners in the UK." British Journal of Management 22.2 (2011): 238-253.
  • Tavares, Vander, et al. eds. Critical and Creative Engagements with Diversity in Nordic Education (Lexington, 2023)
  • Taylor, Alecia. "3 Ways That Anti-DEI Efforts Are Changing How Colleges Operate" Chronicle of Higher Education (January 18, 2024)
  • Thurber, Timothy M. "Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action, and the Troubled History of the President's Committee on Government Contracts." Journal of Policy History 18.4 (2006): 446-476.
  • Urofsky, Melvin I. The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History From Reconstruction to Today (2020); online book; also see New York Times book review
  • Weiss, Robert John. "We want jobs: a history of affirmative action" (PhD dissertation, New York University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1985. 8604096).
  • Weiss, Robert J. "Affirmative Action: A Brief History" Journal of intergroup relations (1987), 15#2 p.40-53; ISSN: 0047-2492
  • Zamani-Gallaher, Eboni M. The case for affirmative action on campus: Concepts of equity, considerations for practice (Stylus Publishing, 2009), with timeline. online.

Primary sources

  • Robinson, Jo Ann, ed. Affirmative action: a documentary history (2001)

External links

  • "DEI Legislation Tracker" from Chronicle of Higher Education. Tracks state legislation that would close DEI offices, ban mandatory diversity training; prevent colleges from using DEI statements in hiring and promotion; or bar them for considering race, sex, ethnicity, or national origin in admissions or employment. Free subscription.



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