Social:Endonym and exonym

Short description: Name variations of ethnic groups, languages, persons, and places

An endonym (also known as autonym) is a common, native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate themselves, their homeland, or their language.

An exonym (also known as xenonym) is an established, non-native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language or dialect, meaning that it is used primarily outside the particular place inhabited by the group or linguistic community.^[1] Exonyms exist not only for historico-geographical reasons but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words,^[1] or from non-systematic attempts at transcribing into a different writing system.^[2]

For instance, Deutschland is the endonym for the country that is also known by the exonym Germany in English, Alemania and Allemagne in Spanish and French, respectively, and Niemcy in Polish.

Naming and etymology

The terms autonym, endonym, exonym and xenonym are formed by adding specific prefixes to the Greek root word ónoma (ὄνομα, 'name'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃nómn̥.

The prefixes added to these terms are also derived from Greek:

endonym: éndon (ἔνδον, 'within');
exonym: éxō (ἔξω, 'outside');
autonym: autós (αὐτός, 'self'); and
xenonym: xénos (ξένος, 'foreign').

The terms autonym and xenonym also have different applications,^[3] thus leaving endonym and exonym as the preferred forms.

Marcel Aurousseau, an Australian geographer, first^[4] used the term exonym in his work The Rendering of Geographical Names (1957).^[5] The term endonym was subsequently devised as a retronymic antonym for the term exonym.^{[citation needed]}

Typology

Endonyms and exonyms can be divided in three main categories:

endonyms and exonyms of place names (toponyms),
endonyms and exonyms of human names (anthroponyms), including names of ethnic groups (ethnonyms), localised populations (demonyms), and individuals (personal names),
endonyms and exonyms of language names (glossonyms).^[6]

Endonyms and exonyms of toponyms

As it pertains to geographical features, the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names defines:^[7]

Endonym: "Name of a geographical feature in an official or well-established language occurring in that area where the feature is located."
Exonym: "Name used in a specific language for a geographical feature situated outside the area where that language is spoken, and differing in its form from the name used in an official or well-established language of that area where the geographical feature is located."

For example, India , China , Egypt, and Germany are the English-language exonyms corresponding to the endonyms Bhārat (भारत), Zhōngguó (中国), Masr (Arabic: مَصر), and Deutschland, respectively. There are also typonyms of specific features, for example hydronyms for bodies of water.

Endonyms and exonyms of glossonyms

In the case of endonyms and exonyms of language names (glossonyms), Chinese, German, and Dutch, for example, are English-language exonyms for the languages that are endonymously known as Zhōngwén (Lua error: not enough memory.), Lua error: not enough memory., and Nederlands, respectively.

Exonyms in relation to endonyms

By their relation to endonyms, all exonyms can be divided into three main categories:

those derived from different roots, as in the case of Germany for Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.;
those that are cognate words, diverged only in pronunciation or orthography;
those that are fully or partially translated (a calque) from the native language.

Sometimes, a place name may be unable to use many of the letters when transliterated into an exonym because of the corresponding language's lack of common sounds. Māori, having only one liquid consonant, is an example of this here.

Cognate exonyms

London (originally Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), for example, is known by the cognate exonyms:

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Catalan, Filipino, French, Galician, Portuguese, and Spanish;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in Greek;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Dutch;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Italian, Maltese, Romanian, Romansh, Sardinian and Turkish;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Albanian;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Czech and Slovak;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Polish;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Māori;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Icelandic;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Irish;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Scottish Gaelic;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Welsh;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Finnish;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Vietnamese;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in Persian, and Urdu;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in Armenian;
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in Chinese.

Translated exonyms

An example of a translated exonym is the name for the Netherlands (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Dutch) used, respectively, in German (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), French (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Italian (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Spanish (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Irish (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Portuguese (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) and Romanian (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), all of which mean "Low Countries". However, the endonym Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is singular, while all the aforementioned translations except Irish are plural.

Native and borrowed exonyms

Exonyms can also be divided into native and borrowed, e.g., from a third language. For example, the Slovene exonyms Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Vienna) and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Venice) are native, but the Avar name of Paris, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Parizh) is borrowed from Russian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Parizh), which comes from Polish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., which comes from Italian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..

A substantial proportion of English-language exonyms for places in continental Europe are borrowed (or adapted) from French; for example:

Belgrade (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Bucharest (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Cologne (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Florence (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Milan (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Munich (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Naples (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. / Template:Lang-nap);
Navarre (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. / Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Prague (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Rome (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.); and
Seville (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.).

Typical development of exonyms

Many exonyms result from adaptations of an endonym into another language, mediated by differences in phonetics, while others may result from translation of the endonym, or as a reflection of the specific relationship an outsider group has with a local place or geographical feature.^[8] According to James Matisoff, who introduced the term autonym into linguistics, exonyms can also arise from the "egocentric" tendency of in-groups to identify themselves with "mankind in general", producing an endonym that out groups would not use, while another source is the human tendency towards neighbours to "be pejorative rather than complimentary, especially where there is a real or fancied difference in cultural level between the ingroup and the outgroup." For example, Matisoff notes, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. "an opprobrious term indicating mixed race or parentage" is the Palaung name for Jingpo people and the Jingpo name for Chin people; both the Jingpo and Burmese use the Chinese word Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) as the name for Lisu people.^[9]

As exonyms develop for places of significance for speakers of the language of the exonym, consequently, many European capitals have English exonyms, for example:

Athens (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Belgrade (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Bucharest (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Brussels (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Copenhagen (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Lisbon (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Moscow (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Prague (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Rome (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.);
Vienna (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.); and
Warsaw (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.).

In contrast, historically less-prominent capitals such as Ljubljana and Zagreb do not have English exonyms, but do have exonyms in languages spoken nearby, e.g. German: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (the latter being obsolete); Italian: Lubiana and Zagabria. Madrid, Berlin, Oslo, and Amsterdam, with identical names in most major European languages, are exceptions.

Some European cities might be considered partial exceptions, in that whilst the spelling is the same across languages, the pronunciation can differ. For example, the city of Paris is spelled the same way in French and English, but the French pronunciation [paʁi] is different from the English pronunciation [ˈpærɪs].

For places considered to be of lesser significance, attempts to reproduce local names have been made in English since the time of the Crusades. Livorno, for instance, was Leghorn because it was an Italian port essential to English merchants and, by the 18th century, to the British Navy; not far away, Rapallo, a minor port on the same sea, never received an exonym.

In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus, the Romans used the tribal names Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Greek) and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Germanic), the Russians used the village name of Chechen, medieval Europeans took the tribal name Tatar as emblematic for the whole Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with Tartarus, a word for Hell, to produce Tartar), and the Magyar invaders were equated with the 500-years-earlier Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were called Hungarians.

The Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire applied the word "Walha" to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in West Germanic languages as a generic name for all non-Germanic speakers; thence:

Wallachia, the historic name of Romania inhabited by the Vlachs
the Slavic term Vlah for "Romanian", dialectally "Italian, Latin"
Wallonia, the french-speaking region of Belgium
Cornwall and Wales, the Celtic-speaking regions located West of the Anglo-Saxon-dominated England
Wallis, a mostly french-speaking canton in Switzerland
Welschland, the German name for the french-speaking Switzerland
the Polish and Hungarian names for Italy, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. respectively

Usage

In avoiding exonyms

During the late 20th century, the use of exonyms often became controversial. Groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in a pejorative way. For example, Romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as Gypsy (from the name of Egypt), and the French term Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (from the name of Bohemia).^[10] People may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity, as in the case of German names for Polish and Czech places that, at one time, had been ethnically or politically German (e.g. Danzig/Gdańsk, Auschwitz/Oświęcim and Karlsbad/Karlovy Vary); and Russian names for non-Russian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed (e.g. Kiev/Kyiv).^[11]

In recent years, geographers have sought to reduce the use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem. For example, it is now common for Spanish speakers to refer to the Turkish capital as Ankara rather than use the Spanish exonym Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..^[12] According to the United Nations Statistics Division:

Time has, however, shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease the number of exonyms were over-optimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way. The reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the language's cultural heritage.

In preference of exonyms

In some situations, the use of exonyms can be preferred. For instance, in multilingual cities such as Brussels, which is known for its linguistic tensions between Dutch- and French-speakers, a neutral name may be preferred so as to not offend anyone. Thus, an exonym such as Brussels in English could be used instead of favoring either one of the local names (Dutch/Flemish: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.; French: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.).

Other difficulties with endonyms have to do with pronunciation, spelling, and word category. The endonym may include sounds and spellings that are highly unfamiliar to speakers of other languages, making appropriate usage difficult if not impossible for an outsider. Over the years, the endonym may have undergone phonetic changes, either in the original language or the borrowing language, thus changing an endonym into an exonym, as in the case of Paris, where the s was formerly pronounced in French. Another example is the endonym for the German city of Cologne, where the Latin original of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. has evolved into Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in German, while the Italian and Spanish exonym Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. or the Portuguese Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. closely reflects the Latin original.

In some cases, no standardised spelling is available, either because the language itself is unwritten (even unanalysed) or because there are competing non-standard spellings. Use of a misspelled endonym is perhaps more problematic than the respectful use of an existing exonym.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Finally, an endonym may be a plural noun and may not naturally extend itself to adjectival usage in another language like English, which has the propensity to use the adjectives for describing culture and language.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The attempt to use the endonym thus has a bizarre-sounding result.

Official preferences

Sometimes the government of a country tries to endorse the use of an endonym instead of traditional exonyms outside the country:

In 1782, King Yotfa Chulalok of Siam moved the government seat from Thon Buri Province to Phra Nakhon Province. In 1972 the Thai government merged Thon Buri and Phra Nakhon, forming the new capital, Krungthep Mahanakhon. However, outside of Thailand, the capital retained the old name and is still called Bangkok.
In 1935, Reza Shah requested that foreign nations use the name Iran rather than Persia in official correspondence. The name of the country had internally been Iran since the time of the Sassanid Empire (224–651), whereas the name Persia is descended from Greek Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), referring to a single province which is officially known as Fars Province.
In 1949, the government of Siam changed the name to Thailand, although the former name's adjective in English (Siamese) was retained as the name for the fish, cat and conjoined twins.
In 1972, the government of Ceylon (the word is the anglicized form of Portuguese Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) changed the name to Sri Lanka, although the name Ceylon was retained as the name for that type of tea.
In 1985, the government of Côte d'Ivoire requested that the country's French name be used in all languages instead of exonyms such as Ivory Coast, so that Côte d'Ivoire is now the official English name of that country in the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee (see name of Côte d'Ivoire). In most non-Francophone countries, however, the French version has not entered common parlance. For example, in German, the country is known as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., in Spanish as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and in Italian as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..
In 1989, the government of Burma requested that the English name of the country be Myanmar, with Myanma as the adjective of the country and Bamar as the name of the inhabitants (see names of Burma).
The Government of India officially changed the English name of Bombay to Mumbai in November 1995, following a trend of renaming of cities and states in India that has occurred since independence.
The Ukraine government maintains that the capital of Ukraine should be spelled Kyiv in English because the traditional English exonym Kiev was derived from the Russian name Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) (see Name of Kyiv).
The Belarus ian government argues that the endonym Belarus should be used in all languages. The result has been rather successful in English, where the former exonym Byelorussia/Belorussia, still used with reference to the Soviet Republic, has virtually died out; in other languages, exonyms are still much more common than Belarus, for instance in Danish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Dutch Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Estonian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Faroese Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Finnish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., German Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Greek Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Hungarian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Icelandic Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Swedish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Turkish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Chinese Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Arabic Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) (all literally 'White Russia'), or French Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Italian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Portuguese Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Spanish Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Serbian Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.).
The government of Georgia has been working to have the country renamed from the Russian-derived exonym of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in foreign languages to Georgia. Most countries have adopted this change, except for Lithuania, which adopted Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (a Lithuanianised version of the country's endonym). As a response, Georgia changed the name of Lithuania in Georgian from the Russian-derived Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) to the endonym Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.). Ukrainian politicians have also suggested that Ukraine change the Ukrainian name of Georgia from Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.).
In 2006, the South Korea n national government officially changed the Chinese name of its capital, Seoul, from the exonym Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) derived from the Joseon era Hanja name (Korean: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.; Hanja: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.; RR: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.). This use has now been made official within China.
In December 2021, a circular was issued by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey ordering the use of Türkiye (also rendered Turkiye in English) instead of exonyms in official communications, no matter the language.^[13]^[14]

Hanyu Pinyin

Following the 1979 declaration of Hanyu Pinyin spelling as the standard romanisation of Chinese, many Chinese endonyms have successfully replaced English exonyms,^[15] especially city and most provincial names in mainland China, for example: Beijing (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), Qingdao (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), and the Province of Guangdong (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.). However, older English exonyms are sometimes used in certain contexts, for example: Peking (Beijing; duck, opera, etc.), Tsingtao (Qingdao), and Canton (Guangdong). In some cases the traditional English exonym is based on a local Chinese dialect instead of Mandarin, in the case of Xiamen, where the name Amoy is closer to the Hokkien pronunciation.

In the case of Beijing, the adoption of the exonym by media outlets quickly gave rise to a hyperforeignised pronunciation, with the result that many English speakers actualize the j in Beijing as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..^[16] One exception of Pinyin standardization in mainland China is the spelling of the province Shaanxi, which is the Gwoyeu Romatzyh spelling of the province. That is because if Pinyin were used to spell the province, it would be indistinguishable from its neighboring province Shanxi, where the pronunciations of the two provinces only differ by tones, which are usually not written down when used in English.

In Taiwan, however, the standardization of Hanyu Pinyin has only seen mixed results. In Taipei, most (but not all) street and district names shifted to Hanyu Pinyin. For example, the Sinyi District is now spelled Xinyi. However, districts like Tamsui and even Taipei itself are not spelled according to Hanyu Pinyin spelling rules. As a matter of fact, most names of Taiwanese cities are still spelled using Chinese postal romanization, including Taipei, Taichung, Taitung, Keelung, and Kaohsiung.

During the 1980s, the Singapore Government encouraged the use of Hanyu Pinyin spelling for place names, especially those with Teochew, Hokkien or Cantonese names, as part of the Speak Mandarin Campaign to promote Mandarin and discourage the use of dialects. For example, the area of Nee Soon, named after Teochew-Peranakan businessman Lim Nee Soon (Hanyu Pinyin: Lín Yìshùn) became Yishun and the neighbourhood schools and places established following the change used the Hanyu Pinyin spelling. In contrast, Hougang is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling but the Hokkien pronunciation au-kang is most commonly used.^[17] The changes to Hanyu Pinyin were not only financially costly but were unpopular with the locals, who opined that the Hanyu Pinyin versions were too difficult for non-Chinese or non-Mandarin speakers to pronounce. The government eventually stopped the changes by the 1990s, which has led to some place names within a locality having differing spellings. For example, Nee Soon Road and the Singapore Armed Forces base Nee Soon Camp are both located in Yishun but retained the old spelling.^[18]

Exonyms as pejoratives

Matisoff wrote, "A group's autonym is often egocentric, equating the name of the people with 'mankind in general,' or the name of the language with 'human speech'."^[9]^:5

In Basque, the term Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is used for speakers of any language different from Basque (usually Spanish or French).

Many millennia earlier, the Greeks thought that all non-Greeks were uncultured and so called them "barbarians", which eventually gave rise to the exonym "Berber".

Slavic people

Exonyms often describe others as "foreign-speaking", "non-speaking", or "nonsense-speaking". One example is the Slavic term for the Germans, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., possibly deriving from plural of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. ("mute"); standard etymology^[19] has it that the Slavic peoples referred to their Germanic neighbors as "mutes" because their language was unintelligible. The term survives to this day in the Slavic languages (e.g. Ukrainian німці (nimtsi); Russian немцы (nemtsy), Slovene Nemčija), and was borrowed into Hungarian, Romanian, and Ottoman Turkish (in which case it referred specifically to Austria).

One of the more prominent theories regarding the origin of the term "Slav" suggests that it comes from the Slavic root Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (hence "Slovakia" and "Slovenia" for example), meaning 'word' or 'speech'. In this context, the Slavs are describing Germanic people as "mutes"—in contrast to themselves, "the speaking ones".

Native Americans

The most common names of several Indigenous American tribes derive from pejorative exonyms. The name "Apache" most likely derives from a Zuni word meaning "enemy". The name "Sioux", an abbreviated form of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., most likely derived from a Proto-Algonquian term, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. ('foreign-speaking).^[20] The name "Comanche" comes from the Ute word Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. meaning "enemy, stranger".^[21] The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as the "Anasazi", a Navajo word meaning "ancient enemies", and contemporary Puebloans discourage the use of the exonym.^[22]^[23]

Various Native-American autonyms are sometimes explained to English readers as having literal translations of "original people" or "normal people", with implicit contrast to other first nations as not original or not normal.^[9]^:5

Confusion with renaming

In East Asia

Although the pronunciation for several names of Chinese cities such as Beijing and Nanjing has not changed for quite some time while in Mandarin Chinese (although the prestige dialect shifted from Nanjing dialect to Beijing dialect during the 19th century), they were called Peking and Nanking in English due to the older Chinese postal romanization convention, based largely on the Nanjing dialect. Pinyin, based largely on the Beijing dialect, became the official romanization method for Mandarin in the 1970s. Since the Mandarin pronunciation does not perfectly map to an English phoneme, English speakers using either romanization will not pronounce the names correctly if standard English pronunciation is used. Nonetheless, many older English speakers still refer to the cities by their older English names, and even today they are often used in their traditional associations, such as Peking duck, Peking opera, and Peking University. As for Nanjing, the historical event called the Nanking Massacre (1937) uses the city's older name because that was the name of the city at the time of occurrence.

Likewise, many Korean cities like Busan and Incheon (formerly Pusan and Inchǒn respectively) also underwent changes in spelling due to changes in romanization, even though the Korean pronunciations have largely stayed the same.

In Eurasia

Exonyms and endonyms must not be confused with the results of geographical renaming as in the case of Saint Petersburg, which became Petrograd (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in 1914, Leningrad (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in 1924, and again Saint Petersburg (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in 1991. In this case, although Saint Petersburg has a German etymology, it was never a German exonym for the city between 1914 and 1991, just as Nieuw Amsterdam, the Dutch name of New York City until 1664, is not its Dutch exonym.

Old place names that have become outdated after renaming may afterward still be used as historicisms. For example, even today one would talk about the Siege of Leningrad, not the Siege of St. Petersburg because at that time (1941–1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in Kaliningrad (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), as it has been called since 1946.

Likewise, Istanbul (Turkish: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) is still called Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) in Greek, although the name was changed in Turkish to dissociate the city from its Greek past between 1923 and 1930 (the name Istanbul itself derives from a Medieval Greek phrase).^[24] Prior to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., the city was known in Greek as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.), named after its mythical founder, Byzas.

In India

The name Madras, now Chennai, may be a special case. When the city was first settled by English people, in the early 17th century, both names were in use. They possibly referred to different villages which were fused into the new settlement. In any case, Madras became the exonym, while more recently, Chennai became the endonym. Madrasi, a term for a native of the city, has often been used derogatorily to refer to the people of Dravidian origin from the southern states of India.

Lists of exonyms

Latin exonyms
List of English exonyms
- English exonyms for German toponyms
- English-translated personal names
List of French exonyms
- French exonyms for Dutch toponyms
- French exonyms for German toponyms
- French exonyms for Italian toponyms
List of German exonyms
- German names for Central European towns
- German exonyms for places in Belgium
- German exonyms for places in Croatia
- German exonyms for places in Denmark
- German exonyms for places in Estonia
- German exonyms for places in Hungary
- German exonyms for places in Latvia
- German exonyms for places in Slovakia
- German exonyms for places in Switzerland
List of European exonyms
- Names of European cities in different languages
- Finnish exonyms
- Greek exonyms
- Italian exonyms
- Portuguese exonyms
- Icelandic exonyms
- Russian exonyms
- Slavic toponyms for Greek places
- Swedish exonyms
- Welsh names for other places in Britain and Ireland
African/Asian/Middle-Eastern/Eurasian exonyms
- Afrikaans exonyms
- Arabic exonyms
- Azerbaijani exonyms
- Armenian exonyms
- Chinese exonyms
- Japanese exonyms
- Turkish exonyms
- Vietnamese exonyms

References

Citations

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 "Exonym and Endonym" (in en). https://www.thoughtco.com/exonym-and-endonym-names-1690691.
↑ Ormeling, Ferjan. "Exonyms in Cartography". https://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/_data_ICAcourses/_HtmlModules/_Documents/D13/Documents/D13-01_Ormeling.pdf.
↑ Room 1996, p. 14.
↑ Harder, Kelsey B. (1996). "156. Names in Language Contact: Exonyms (Namen im Sprachaustausch: Exonyme I Les noms dans des echanges de /angues: exonymes)". in Eichler, Ernst (in de). Namenforschung/Name Studies/Les noms propres. 2/11 in the series Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK). 2. Halbband+Registerband. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1012. doi:10.1515/9783110203431. ISBN 9783110148794. (TOC)
↑ Aurousseau, Marcel (1957) (in en). The Rendering of Geographical Names. London: Hutchinson university library. pp. 17. https://archive.org/details/renderingofgeogr0000auro/page/17/mode/1up.
↑ Edelman, Loulou. 2009. "What's in a Name? Classification of proper names by language". Pp. 141–53 in Linguistic landscape: expanding the scenery, edited by E. Shohamy and D. Gorter. London: Routledge. Goh, CL.: "The names of monarchs, popes, and non-contemporary authors as well as place names are commonly translated. Foreign names for geographic proper names are called exonyms. Fourment-Berni Canani (1994) discusses the (im)possibility of translating proper names. He gives examples of the place names Venice and London. The Italian city Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. has been renamed Venice in English and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in French. A city in the American state California is also called Venice, but this name is not changed into Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Italian and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in French. Similarly, the English city London has been renamed Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in French and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in Italian. However, the Canadian city called London is not translated into French and Italian in this way. Thus, as Fourment-Berni Canani concludes, a place name can be translated if the place, as a unique referent, has already been renamed in the target language."
↑ Geršič, M., ed (2020). "Introduction". Slovenia: United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. http://ungegn.zrc-sazu.si/. .
↑ Jordan, Peter (3–7 May 2021) (Provisional agenda item 13 - submission by Austria). Exonyms as part of the cultural heritage. New York: United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, Second session. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ungegn/sessions/2nd_session_2021/documents/GEGN.2_2021_73_CRP73_13_Exonyms_cultural_heritage.pdf.
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 ^9.2 Matisoff, James (1986). "The languages and dialects of Tibeto-Burman: an alphabetic/genetic listing, with some prefatory remarks on ethnonymic and glossonymic complications". in McCoy, John. Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 6. ISBN 90-04-07850-9. OCLC 15093829. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15093829.
↑ Challa, Janaki. "Why Being 'Gypped' Hurts The Roma More Than It Hurts You". NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/12/30/242429836/why-being-gypped-hurts-the-roma-more-than-it-hurts-you. "“Hancock tells me the word "gypsy" itself is an "exonym" — a term imposed upon an ethnic group by outsiders. When the Roma people moved westward from India towards the European continent, they were mistaken to be Egyptian because of their features and dark skin. We see the same phenomenon across several languages, not only English. Victor Hugo, in his epic Hunchback of Notre Dame, noted that the Medieval French term for the Roma was egyptiens. In Spanish, the word for gypsy is "gitano," which comes from the word egipcio, meaning Egyptian — in Romanian: tigan, in Bulgarian: tsiganin, in Turkish: cingene — all of which are variations of slang words for "Egyptian" in those languages.“"
↑ Van der Meulen, Martin. "Why I Will Never Again Refer to the Ukrainian Capital City as Kiev". The Low Countries. https://www.the-low-countries.com/article/why-i-will-never-again-refer-to-the-ukrainian-capital-city-as-kiev.
↑ Luxán, Marga Azcárate; Tagle, Bárbara Alonso. "EXONYMS IN SPANISH Criteria and usage in cartography". NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE OF SPAIN (IGN). https://www.ign.es/resources/acercaDe/libDigPub/exonyms_in_spanish.pdf.
↑ "Turkiye - The latest news from TRT World". https://www.trtworld.com/turkey.
↑ "Why Turkey is now 'Turkiye', and why that matters". https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/why-turkey-is-now-turkiye-and-why-that-matters-52602.
↑ Eighth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names Berlin, 27 August-5 September 2002. New York: United Nations. 2003. ISBN 92-1-100915-4. OCLC 52095159.
↑ Lima, Susan D. (1994). Corrigan, Roberta. ed. The Reality of Linguistic Rules.. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 80. ISBN 978-90-272-8203-3. OCLC 746747262. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/746747262.
↑ Savage, Victor R.; Yeoh, Brenda S. (2013). Toponymics: A Study of Singapore Street Names (3rd ed.). Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9789814408356.
↑ Yeh, Yun-Tsui. (2013) "Erased Place Names" and Nation-building: A Case Study of Singaporean Toponyms". Sociology.
↑ Townson (1992). Mother-tongue and Fatherland: Language and Politics in German. Manchester University Press. p. 78. ISBN 9780719034398. https://books.google.com/books?id=5dNRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78.
↑ d'Errico, Peter (2005). "Native American Indian Studies - A Note on Names". University of Massachusetts. https://www.umass.edu/legal/derrico/name.html.
↑ Sapir, Edward (1992). "Southern Paiute Dictionary". in Bright, William. The Collected Works of Edward Sapir. Berlin: Mouton deGruyter.
↑ Cordell, Linda; McBrinn, Maxine (2012). Archaeology of the Southwest (3 ed.).
↑ "Puebloan Culture". http://hewit.unco.edu/DOHIST/puebloan/begin.htm.
↑ "The Names of Kōnstantinoúpolis". Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi. 5. Ciltli. 1994.

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General and cited sources

Jordan, Peter, Hubert Bergmann, Caroline Burgess, and Catherine Cheetham, eds. 2010 & 2011. "Trends in Exonym Use." Proceedings of the 10th UNGEGN Working Group on Exonyms Meeting. Tainach (28–30 April 2010). Hamburg (2011). Name & Place 1.
Jordan, Peter, Milan Orožen Adamič, and Paul Woodman, eds. 2007. "Exonyms and the International Standardisation of Geographical Names." Approaches towards the Resolution of an Apparent Contradiction. Wien and Berlin. Wiener Osteuropastudien 24.
Room, Adrian (1996). An Alphabetical Guide to the Language of Name Studies. Lanham and London: The Scarecrow Press. pp. 14. ISBN 9780810831698. https://books.google.com/books?id=XEtiAAAAMAAJ.

External links

2006 UN document discussing exonyms (PDF)
Jacek Wesołowski's Place Names in Europe, featuring endonyms and exonyms for many cities (archived 23 August 2000)
"Does Juliet's Rose, by Any Other Name, Smell as Sweet?" by Verónica Albin.
Looking up in exonym database
European geographical names infrastructure and services on EuroGeoNames (archived 15 January 2009)
UN document describing EuroGeoNames (PDF)
World map of country endonyms