Social:Korean beauty standards

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K-pop idols with slim bodies and pale skin
The physical appearances of K-pop idols, with slim bodies and pale skin, impacts Korean beauty standards.

Korean beauty standards have become a well-known feature of Korean culture. In 2015, a global survey by the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons placed South Korea in the top ten of countries who had the highest rate of cosmetic surgeries.[1] Korean beauty standards prioritize a slim figure, dewy skin, v-shaped jaw, pale skin, straight eyebrows, and smooth skin.[2]

Beauty standards for the eyes include aegyo-sal, which is a term used in Korea referring to the small fatty deposits underneath the eyes that are said to give a person a more youthful appearance. Korean beauty standards have been influenced largely by those in the media, including actresses, TV personalities, and K-pop stars. The physical appearance of K-pop idols has greatly impacted the beauty standards in Korea.[3]

Cultural pressure

A study from 2008 determined that 20 percent of young Korean girls have undergone cosmetic surgery. This is significantly above the average rate in other countries.[4] A more recent survey from Gallup Korea in 2015 determined that approximately one-third of South Korean women between 19 and 29 have claimed to have had plastic surgery.[5]

In South Korea, there is immense societal pressure to conform to the community and societal expectations placed on the individual. This is evident in the theorization of what influences both Korean men and women to want to strive to achieve a strict beauty standard. A study by Lin and Raval from Miami University shows that the pressure for the "perfect" appearance may stem from feelings of inferiority if they perceive themselves as less attractive within their community.[6] The result from this particular study supports the previous evidence from Keong Ja Woo, who analyzed how beauty standards in Korea, in regard to one's height, weight, and facial preference, impacted their chances of employment.[7]

The pressure to uphold a standard of beauty is even felt within the job market. Companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process.[8] Beauty is often seen as a means for socioeconomic success in the rapidly modernized post-war economy of South Korea, which has seen a sluggish job growth rate after its economic boom. This has left Korea with a highly skilled and educated workforce competing for a short supply of job opportunities and chances for upward social mobility. Some Koreans view investments in beauty, such as cosmetic products and medical beauty treatments, such as plastic surgery, dermatology, and cosmetic dentistry, as a means of cultural capital to get an edge over peers for social and economic advancement.[9]

The theorization of the impact of Western beauty standards for the Korean society is highly controversial in the West. Some Western authors attribute modern Korean beauty standards to Western influence, while others point out that Caucasian features are in many cases considered unattractive by Korean beauty standards, and that Korean beauty standards portray a traditional ethnic "look" that is seen in pre-colonial Korean art.[10] Some studies have reported a higher incidence of body dissatisfaction among Korean boys and girls than among boys and girls living in the United States,[11][12] while noting that these studies fail to control for the slimmer and smaller size of Koreans as compared with Westerners.[13]

In addition to this, Jung and Lee observed that there were more models that conformed to thin beauty ideals in South Korean magazines than that of U.S. magazines.[14] Higher cultural pressure to conform to thin body ideals in South Korea may be responsible for the higher rate of body dysmorphia and eating disorders among Korean men and women.[6]

Since South Korea has seen more than a twenty-fold increase in real per capita income and is currently ranked within the top twenty economies in the world with continual growth, there has been a paralleled increase in visibility for women's rights within South Korea.[15] However, with this growth in visibility and social change for women, there is an interesting observation that this change is "immediately accompanied by increases in body dissatisfaction and eating disorders".[15] This could be explained by a sociocultural theory, namely objectification theory, that asserts:

"Any movement toward gender equality that threatens the stability of the patriarchy is followed inevitably by a heightened emphasis on unrealistic beauty standards and increasing pressure to meet these standards. Such pressure may be effectively applied as a means to oppress women and maintain patriarchal control, as unrealistic standards such as these undermine women's self-confidence and materially shift their focus away from their individual capabilities to more generalized and superficial aspects of their physical appearance."[16]

Other cultural factors such as the hardened Confucianism in Korean society has been quoted as a prominent factor. The philosophy of Confucius highly influenced the gender roles and norms in Korea, and some of his teachings have been sustained even through modern Korea. The emphasis on gender roles, with women being submissive and men being dominant, caused a patriarchal society from these philosophical teachings which may have had an impact on the beauty standard.[12]

Women are more likely to examine and make changes to their bodies and face in order to adhere to the beauty standards projected by the objectification theory that views women as "objects".[16] This raises the observation that impractical beauty standards could be caused by highly patriarchal societies that only promote unbending gender roles which is then reflected by the influence of Confucianism in Korean history. There could be another cultural factor such as certain facial features leading to bad luck encourages the Korean individual to plastic surgery.[6]

Beauty products

In 2015 South Korea exported more than $2.64 billion of cosmetic goods[17] compared to around $1.91 billion in 2014.[18] Some of the most popular products used in Korean beauty are blemish balm (BB) creams, color correction (CC) creams, serums, essences, ampoules, seaweed face masks, and scrubs.[19] Korean beauty products contain ingredients not commonly found in Western products such as snail extract. In 2011, BB cream, which was previously only found in China, hit the shelves in America, and by 2014, the US market for BB cream was around $164 million.

The ideal for Korean women is to have "dewy" skin, meaning smooth, hydrated, clear, resilient, and shiny.[20] Chok-Chok refers to skin that is bouncy and moist; taeng-taeng describes skin that is firm and smooth.[20] The dewy skincare routines are quite different from the Western concept of using makeup to conceal flaws. While Western makeup uses facial contouring to try and change the appearance of one's facial bone structure, Korean dewy makeup seeks to enhancing the skin's appearance, creating a "natural" look.[21]

Plastic surgery

Example of Korean double eyelid surgery
Example of Korean double-eyelid surgery

South Korea is often called "plastic surgery capital of the world" due in part to its status as an affordable destination for Chinese, Russian and United States cosmetic tourists,[22][23][24] however a large number of countries in the Western hemisphere have also been dubbed the "plastic surgery capital of the world".[25] Plastic surgery in South Korea is not as stigmatized as in the west and is even a common graduation gift.[26] The most common plastic surgery among Koreans is eye surgery and wrinkle removal surgery, whereas Caucasians in Korea tended to get their noses reduced in size, followed by eye surgery.[27]

The appeal of common cosmetic procedures among South Koreans are sometimes attributed to Western influence, however other authors reject this view and suggest that they represent the pursuit of a distinctly Korean ethnic "look".[10] V-line surgery (jaw and chin reduction) and cheekbone (zygoma) reduction surgeries are used to change the facial contour. These surgeries are especially common amongst celebrities who are often required to undergo these changes in their cheekbones, jaw, and chin with the ultimate goal being to create an oval face.[28] It has been noted that many foreigners of Western origin have sought plastic surgery in Korea to look like Korean celebrities.[29][30]

Motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty.[31] As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, it is inevitable that the Korean population feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty".[6]

South Korea has also seen an increase in medical tourism from people who seek surgeon expertise in facial bone contouring. Korean surgeons have advanced facial bone contouring with procedures like the osteotomy technique[32][33] and have published the first book on facial bone contouring surgeries.[34] There was a 17 percent increase in the sales of cosmetic surgery from 1999 to 2000, reaching almost ₩170 billion (South Korean won) which is $144 million United States dollar .[35]

The group that receives the most plastic surgery in Korea is idol trainees, and there is a culture in which entertainment agencies force plastic surgery regardless of their will. As a result of hearing opinions from plastic surgeons in downtown Seoul, the answer came out, "90% of idol singers and trainees appearing on TV seem to have had plastic surgery." Won-jun Yoon, director of Migo Plastic Surgery Clinic, said, "Now, plastic surgery has become an essential course that teenagers who dream of becoming celebrities must go through before their debut. The most common surgeries they receive are facial contouring and fat removal. Director Bae Jun-seong of JK Plastic Surgery said, "For the face, there are many cases of receiving a discount on the eyes, nose, and facial contouring surgery as a set."[36]

History

David Ralph Millard, who graduated from Yale College and Harvard Medical School, had been employed by the U.S. Marine Corps as the chief plastic surgeon in South Korea.[37] Desiring a similar path to his mentor, Sir Harold Gillies, he wanted to provide reconstructive plastic surgery for wounded soldiers, children, and other civilians that were injured by the Korean War. Millard was observing ways to perform reconstructive surgeries on burn victims in order to reforming eyebrows on the patients in which he had an unusual interest to the study of the eye, the eye socket, and the eyelid fold.[37]

He wanted to modify the structure of the "oriental" eye into a more "western" look. Millard was unable to find a consenting patient until a Korean translator requested undergo the operation for eyes that had a more "round appearance", stating that the "because of the squint in his slant eyes, Americans could not tell what he was thinking and consequently did not trust him" in which Millard agreed with his sentiment.[37] Millard then found inspiration to pave the way to conduct his own research on performing double-eyelid surgery when he could not find any journals translated in English.

Although the double-eyelid surgery was already performed in small bulks in Japan, Hong Kong, and Korea, Millard's incorporation had changed the motivation and techniques for plastic surgery in Korea. Millard stated he wanted to reduce the "Asian-ness" by making a higher nose bridge by implanting more cartilage to the nose and widening the eyes by tearing the inner fold of the eye for a look of a longer eye, removed the fat in the eyelid that causes the monolid, and sutured the skin on the eyelid to create the double-eyelid fold.[37] There were many plastic surgeries of this nature performed on various Koreans during this era and before he left the country, trained numerous local doctors on his techniques.

Break the corset movement

Further information: MeToo movement in South Korea and Gender inequality in South Korea

In 2015, participants in the feminist movement Megalia began to use the word "corset" as a metonym for the restraints women place on themselves in order to conform to the expectations of a male-centered society, especially expectations about physical appearance.[38][39] Having to deal with societal oppression was compared to being bound up in a corset. Korean women took to social media in a backlash against unrealistic beauty standards that requires them to spend hours applying makeup and performing extensive skincare regimes, which often involve ten steps or more.[40] After the #MeToo movement, when women shared their sexual assault and harassment stories, this became known as the "break (or free) the corset" movement.[40] Some Korean women have destroyed their makeup, cut their hair, and rejected the pressures of getting surgery.[41][40][42] The purpose of the movement is to create space for Korean women to feel comfortable with themselves and not have social pressures limit their identity.[43] Critics argue that by criticizing women who still apply makeup, supporters of the movement are just imposing more constraints on women's freedom of choice.[44]

Male beauty standards

While expectations of female beauty usually outweigh male expectations, South Korea is notable for the standards placed on men. South Korea has become one of the beauty capitals of the world for male beauty. In contrast to the West, it is still a misconception that the South Korean beauty industry exclusively focuses on women. Make-up is not seen as a gendered product and South Korea itself is proud to advertise many brands and products that are available to men. One of the reasons for this standard is the Korean Pop music culture or K-Pop. In the Western hemisphere, the population has a different understanding when it comes to the attractiveness of males.

It is very common for Korean men to care about clear, smooth and fair skin. It is also usual to dye and style hair on a regular basis.[45] The body shape is expected to appear rather androgyne than too muscular. Men wear sharply stylish cut outfits and double eyelids are really common as a result of cosmetic surgery. Korean men often choose to get surgery to achieve a higher nose along with smaller and slender facial features.[46]

"Over the past decade South Korean men have become the world's biggest male spenders on skincare and beauty products." Between 2011 and 2017, the market grew by 44%.[47] South Koreas's cosmetics industry earns nearly $10 billion in annual sales. The industry is trying to expand its appeal to young men in their twenties. The cosmetic companies' marketing teams have also developed strategies to win new costumers for their always changing product lines. Major sports events such as baseball games air advertisements for skincare due to the large attendance of potential customers making it a good commercial opportunity to do so.

In 2015, Korean cosmetics brand Innisfree released a line of warpaint for serving soldiers that contained added skincare benefits.[48]

See also

  • Tattooing in South Korea
  • Women in South Korea

References

  1. ↑ "ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic/Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2015 | isaps.org". https://www.isaps.org/Media/Default/global-statistics/2016%20ISAPS%20Results.pdf. 
  2. ↑ "Unrealistic Beauty Standards: Korea's Cosmetic Obsession". 2015-03-26. http://seoulbeats.com/2015/03/unrealistic-beauty-standards-koreas-cosmetic-obsession/. Retrieved 2015-03-26. 
  3. ↑ "Unrealistic Beauty Standards: Korea's Cosmetic Obsession". 2015-03-26. http://seoulbeats.com/2015/03/unrealistic-beauty-standards-koreas-cosmetic-obsession/. Retrieved 2015-03-26. 
  4. ↑ Holliday, Ruth; Elfving-Hwang, Joanna (2012-06-01). "Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea" (in en). Body & Society 18 (2): 58–81. doi:10.1177/1357034X12440828. ISSN 1357-034X. 
  5. ↑ "Meet the South Korean women rejecting intense beauty standards" (in en). 2019-02-05. https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/2185037/meet-south-korean-women-rejecting-their-countrys-intense-beauty. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Lin, Kathy L.; Raval, Vaishali V. (2020). "Understanding Body Image and Appearance Management Behaviors Among Adult Women in South Korea Within a Sociocultural Context: A Review". International Perspectives in Psychology (Hogrefe Publishing Group) 9 (2): 96–122. doi:10.1037/ipp0000124. ISSN 2157-3883. 
  7. ↑ Woo, K. J. (2004). The Beauty Complex and the Plastic Surgery Industry. Korea Journal, 44, 52– 82.
  8. ↑ Maguire, Ciaran. "Stress dominates every aspect of life in South Korea". https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/abroad/generation-emigration/stress-dominates-every-aspect-of-life-in-south-korea-1.2837362. Retrieved 2016-10-24. 
  9. ↑ "Why is plastic surgery so popular in South Korea?". 2017-10-26. https://myseoulsecret.com/why-is-plastic-surgery-popular-korea/. Retrieved 2017-10-26. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Widdows, Heather (25 February 2020) (in en). Perfect Me: Beauty as an Ethical Ideal. Princeton University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-691-19714-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=MnKlDwAAQBAJ.  "For example, the Asian trends in facial surgery are given as examples of the westernization of global beauty. However, some reject the westernization claim and look to local influences ... Ruth Holiday and colleagues similarly argue that this is not a Western look but a distinctively "Korean look."
  11. ↑ Jung, J. (2006). "Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Appearance Self-Schema, Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Dieting Behavior Between Korean and U.S. Women". Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal 34 (4): 350–365. doi:10.1177/1077727X06286419. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Jung, J; Forbes, GB; Lee, Y (2009). "Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating among Early Adolescents from Korea and the U.S.". Sex Roles 61 (1–2): 42–54. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9609-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225871728. 
  13. ↑ Jung, Forbes & Lee 2009, p. 44"Unfortunately, the available studies are difficult to interpret because most of them have one or more important limitations. First, comparison groups from other cultures have been absent from most studies. This means it is extremely difficult to identify cross-cultural differences. Second, most studies have failed to control for body size. Because body dissatisfaction is related to body size(Grogan 1999), and Korean and other East Asian groups typically have bodies that are smaller and slimmer than Western bodies (Jung and Lee 2006), controls for body size are essential."
  14. ↑ Jung, J., & Lee, Y. J. (2009). Cross-cultural Examination of Women's Fashion and Beauty Magazine Advertisements in the United States and South Korea. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 27, 274–286.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kim, S. Y., Seo, Y. S., & Baek, K. Y. (2014). Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 24–36. doi:10.1037/a0034433
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
  17. ↑ Service (KOCIS), Korean Culture and Information. "Korean skincare, cosmetics exports hit USD 2.6 bil. : Korea.net : The official website of the Republic of Korea" (in en). http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Business/view?articleId=131805. 
  18. ↑ Arthur, Golda (2016-01-28). "The key ingredients of South Korea's skincare success" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-35408764. 
  19. ↑ "Asian Beauty Standards and Products Make Way for Innovation and Influence Markets in the West". http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CA460483622&v=2.1&u=lincclin_ecc&it=r&p=GRGM&sw=w&authCount=1. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Thompson, Kerry; Park, Coco (3 November 2015) (in en). Korean Beauty Secrets: A Practical Guide to Cutting-Edge Skincare & Makeup. Simon and Schuster. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-5107-0119-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=FzWCDwAAQBAJ&dq=korea+dewy+skin&pg=PT23. 
  21. ↑ Khedun-Burgoine, Brittany; Kiaer, Jieun (16 September 2022) (in en). Korean Wave in World Englishes: The Linguistic Impact of Korea's Popular Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-429-57569-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=AJh8EAAAQBAJ&dq=dewy+skin+korea&pg=PT89. 
  22. ↑ DeMicco, Frederick J.; Poorani, Ali A. (27 October 2022) (in en). Medical Travel Brand Management: Success Strategies for Hospitality Bridging Healthcare (H2H). CRC Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-000-56578-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=EauGEAAAQBAJ.  "By some accounts, South Korea is the plastic surgery capital of the world. However, this South Korean specialty has become controversial in the last few years. In 2014, the national health ministry reports, one in four Chinese patients came for cosmetic surgery. So did 28% of Russians and 23% of Americans."
  23. ↑ "Forever young, beautiful and scandal-free: The rise of South Korea's virtual influencers". CNN. July 31, 2022. https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/south-korea-virtual-influencers-beauty-social-media-intl-hnk-dst/index.html. 
  24. ↑ Jacobs, Harrison (2018-06-28). "People have the wrong idea about the 3 most popular procedures in South Korea, the plastic surgery capital of the world". Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.nl/south-korea-plastic-surgery-gangnam-biggest-misconception-2018-6/. Retrieved 2021-04-29. 
  25. ↑ Lindstrom, Martin (23 February 2016) (in en). Small Data: The Tiny Clues That Uncover Huge Trends. Macmillan. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-250-08068-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=AnBjCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22plastic+surgery+capital+of+the+world%22&pg=PA124. 
  26. ↑ Marx, Patricia (16 March 2015). "The World Capital of Plastic Surgery" (in en-US). The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23/about-face. Retrieved 2021-06-21. 
  27. ↑ "Most plastic surgery types". joongang. January 15, 2018. https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/22287454#home.  "It was found that the most frequent plastic surgery site for Koreans is 'eyes→wrinkles→nose→chest'." ... "Patients in Western countries such as the United States and Europe and Middle Eastern countries also increased significantly compared to the previous year. According to Banobagi Medical Group, 'rhinoplasty' was the most common, followed by 'eye surgery', 'fat transplant', 'filler botox', and 'contouring'. Western and Middle Eastern patients are said to be too smart and often go to hospitals to trim their large noses."
  28. ↑ Park, Sanghoon (2017-06-14), "Why Facial Bone Contouring Surgery?: Backgrounds" (in en), Facial Bone Contouring Surgery, Springer Singapore, pp. 3–6, doi:10.1007/978-981-10-2726-0_1, ISBN 9789811027253 
  29. ↑ Faktor, Steve (27 October 2011) (in en). Econovation: The Red, White, and Blue Pill for Arousing Innovation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-118-18243-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=rok-Zr2ApQsC&dq=foreigners+get+surgery+to+look+kpop&pg=PT102.  "Not known for attracting tourists, South Korea suddenly found that rich foreigners were flocking to Gangnam's 430 clinics to get plastic surgery to look like their favorite Korean celebrities...By 2015 Gangnam expects over 400,000 visitors"
  30. ↑ Cain, Geoffrey. "I wanted to look like a K-pop star so I went to a South Korean plastic surgery clinic". https://www.businessinsider.com/i-wanted-to-look-like-a-k-pop-star-so-i-went-to-a-south-korean-plastic-surgery-clinic-2015-3.  "South Koreans get more nip and tucks per capita every year than most anywhere else on Earth. There are endless stories here of crazed fans taking their passion too far, disfiguring their faces with self-administered cooking oil injections, or enduring garish makeovers to turn their seemingly imperfect foreign faces into perfect Korean ones."
  31. ↑ Holliday, R., & Elfving-Hwang, J. (2012). Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea. Body and Society, 18, 58– 81.
  32. ↑ Lee, Tae Sung; Kim, Hye Young; Kim, Tak Ho; Lee, Ji Hyuck; Park, Sanghoon (March 2014). "Contouring of the Lower Face by a Novel Method of Narrowing and Lengthening Genioplasty" (in en). Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 133 (3): 274e–282e. doi:10.1097/01.prs.0000438054.21634.4a. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 24572871. 
  33. ↑ Lee, Tae Sung; Kim, Hye Young; Kim, Takho; Lee, Ji Hyuck; Park, Sanghoon (October 2014). "Importance of the Chin in Achieving a Feminine Lower Face". The Journal of Craniofacial Surgery 25 (6): 2180–3. doi:10.1097/scs.0000000000001096. ISSN 1049-2275. PMID 25329849. 
  34. ↑ Facial bone contouring surgery : a practical guide. Park, Sanghoon. Singapore: Springer. 2017. ISBN 9789811027260. OCLC 1004601615. 
  35. ↑ Ja, Woo Keong (2004). "The beauty complex and the cosmetic surgery industr". Korea Journal 44 (2): 52. http://www.ekoreajournal.net/issue/view_pop.htm?Idx=3297. 
  36. ↑ "['위험한 꿈' 아이돌 연습생] [下] '성형 강박증' 시달리는 아이들". 2 August 2020. https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/03/18/2010031800156.html. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Kurek, L. (2015). Eyes Wide Cut: The American Origins of Korea's Plastic Surgery Craze: South Korea's Obsession with Cosmetic Surgery can be traced back to an American Doctor, Raising Uneasy Questions about Beauty Standards. The Wilson Quarterly, 39(4).
  38. ↑ Singh, Emily (30 July 2016). "Megalia: South Korean Feminism Marshals the Power of the Internet". Korea Exposé. https://koreaexpose.com/megalia-south-korean-feminism-marshals-the-power-of-the-internet/. 
  39. ↑ Kim, Donna Do-own (2020). "Mirroring the Misogynistic Wor(l)d: Civic Imagination and Speech Mirroring Strategy in Korea’s Online Feminist Movement". in Jenkins, Henry. Popular Culture and the Civic Imagination: Case Studies of Creative Social Change. New York: New York University Press. p. 154. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Pressigny, Clementine de; Chan, Keira (30 October 2018). "why a new generation of women are challenging south korea's beauty standards". https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/article/yw9yxw/why-a-new-generation-of-women-are-challenging-south-koreas-beauty-standards. 
  41. ↑ Lee, Claire (18 November 2018b). "'Isu station' assault case triggers online gender war in South Korea". Korea Herald. http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20181118000177. 
  42. ↑ Alejo, Aubrey (28 November 2018). "Koreans Are Ditching Beauty Standards to Escape The Corset". https://mega.onemega.com/south-korea-escape-the-corset/. 
  43. ↑ "A corset-free movement". 6 June 2018. http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=3049006. 
  44. ↑ Bizwire, Korea (12 June 2018). ""Free Corset" Movement Gathers Steam". http://koreabizwire.com/free-corset-movement-gathers-steam/119857. 
  45. ↑ Balen, Cara (13 February 2019). "Gendered Beauty: How South Korea is challenging our perception of male beauty standards.". https://londonrunway.co.uk/2019/02/13/gendered-beauty-how-south-korea-is-challenging-our-perception-of-male-beauty-standards/. Retrieved 13 February 2019. 
  46. ↑ B., Elsa. "What are the beauty standards for men in South Korea?". https://www.kpopstarz.com/articles/207718/20150604/plastic-surgery-south-korea-men-beauty.htm. Retrieved 4 June 2014. 
  47. ↑ The Thaiger (25 January 2019). "Will the West embrace the South Korean male beauty product industry?". https://thethaiger.com/thai-life/well-being/will-the-west-embrace-the-south-korean-male-beauty-product-industry. Retrieved 25 January 2019. 
  48. ↑ Shim, Elizabeth. "South Korean men buying into cosmetics craze, wearing makeup to improve image.". https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/05/11/South-Korean-men-buying-into-cosmetics-craze-wearing-makeup-to-improve-image/3851431359613/. Retrieved 11 May 2015. 



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