Social:Kurdish Turkization in Turkey

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Short description: State-led assimilation policies targeting Kurdish identity and culture in Turkey.

Template:Kurds

Turkish soldiers and local people of Dersim region. They were exiled to other parts of Turkey, 1938.

Kurdish Turkization in Turkey refers to a series of state-sponsored policies aimed at assimilating the Kurdish population into a unified Turkish national identity.[1][2] These efforts have been ongoing since the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.[3][4][5][6]

Rooted in the late transformations of the Ottoman Empire and shaped by the rise of 20th-century Turkish nationalism, these policies have targeted the suppression of Kurdish language, cultural expression, and ethnic identity[7] in order to promote Turkish linguistic and cultural hegemony.[8][9]

Background and history

The history of Turkization of the Kurdish population in Turkey and Turkish Kurdistan can be traced back to the fall of the multiethnic Ottoman Empire and the rise of the modern Turkish nation-state. The shift began with the emergence of the Young Turks and became more intense after the Republic was founded in 1923. From the beginning, the new state pursued a nationalist project focused on creating a unified Turkish identity.[10] This transformation was led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, whose vision for the Republic aimed to define the country as exclusively Turkish, sidelining other ethnic identities, especially Kurdishness.[11][12]

Over the years, this vision led to policies aimed at suppressing Kurdish culture and identity. These included banning the use of the Kurdish language, renaming Kurdish villages, and limiting Kurdish political participation. For a population of an estimated 15–20 million Kurds, these policies have had a deep and lasting impact—fueling the rise of Kurdish nationalism and contributing to continued social and political tensions in the country.[13][14]

The Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which confirmed Turkish sovereignty, did not grant any minority rights to the Kurds. This allowed the state to implement policies that undermined Kurdish language and cultural expressions.[15][16][17][18] As part of this approach, the Kurdish language was banned in public spaces, Kurdish families were relocated, and Kurdish uprisings—such as the Sheikh Said rebellion (1925) and the Dersim rebellion (1937–1938)—were met with harsh military suppression.[19] These actions reflected a broader policy of ethnic homogenization, where the state viewed visible Kurdish identity as a threat to national unity.[20]

Until 1991, the government officially denied the existence of Kurds, instead referring to them as "Mountain Turks" in an attempt to erase their identity.[21]

In the early 2000s, there were attempts to reform these policies, including the so-called Kurdish Opening. However, these initiatives were limited in scope and did not bring about lasting change. The cycle of state repression and Kurdish resistance continued, marked by clashes between Kurdish political movements—especially the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)—and Turkish authorities. Discrimination, armed conflict, and political crackdowns remain key features of the state’s approach to Kurdish demands for rights and recognition.[22][23][24][25]

Policies of Turkization

The Turkish Constitution designates Turkish as the only language of instruction. Article 42.9 prohibits the teaching of any other language to Turkish citizens, effectively banning the use of the Kurdish language in schools and public institutions.[26][27][28] The Turkish Language Association (TDK) led efforts to "purify" the language by removing non-Turkish elements. Education in Kurdish remains heavily restricted and often politicized.[29][30]

Turkey does not recognize Kurds as a minority under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, which limits their cultural and political rights.[31][32][33] Many Kurds report facing discrimination and marginalization in daily life.[34][35]

Turkization policies have also included the renaming of Kurdish villages.[36]

Despite systemic obstacles, many Kurds in Turkey continue to preserve their ethnic identity and cultural traditions.[37][38]

See also

  • Serhildan
  • Kurdish rebellions during World War I
  • Early Kurdish nationalism
  • Dersim massacre
  • Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)
  • Kurdish villages depopulated by Turkey
  • Denial of Kurds by Turkey

References

  1. ↑ Boldt, Andreas (2017-03-16) (in en). Historical Mechanisms: An Experimental Approach to Applying Scientific Theories to the Study of History. Taylor & Francis. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-351-81648-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=rzslDwAAQBAJ. 
  2. ↑ (in en) Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies: JSAS.. Society for Armenian Studies. 2000. https://books.google.com/books?id=SNVtAAAAMAAJ. 
  3. ↑ Kohn, Hans (2022-11-30) (in en). Western Civilization in the Near East. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-79806-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=wHAIEQAAQBAJ. 
  4. ↑ Riemer, Andrea K.; Korkisch, Fred W. (2003) (in en). Das Spannungsdreieck USA-Europa-Türkei. P. Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-6458-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=VmMnAQAAMAAJ. 
  5. ↑ Grunebaum, G. E. von (2017-07-28) (in en). Classical Islam: A History, 600 A.D. to 1258 A.D.. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-52809-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ziIxDwAAQBAJ. 
  6. ↑ (in en) Egyptian Economic & Political Review: A Review of Politics and Economics in the Middle East. International ed. Adel Mahmoud Sabit. 1954. https://books.google.com/books?id=M2k8AQAAIAAJ. 
  7. ↑ "Anti-Kurdish language violence in schools" (in en-US). https://respondcrisistranslation.org/en/blog/ks-anti-kurdish-language-violence-in-schools. 
  8. ↑ "Kurdish Turkization in Turkey". https://storm.genie.stanford.edu/article/1158152. 
  9. ↑ (in en) Addressing Turkish Genocide Apologists: On UNIX UseNet World Wide Computer Network. Social Democratic Party of Armenia. 1989. ISBN 978-1-877935-01-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=lnDiAAAAMAAJ. 
  10. ↑ "State Domination in Turkey and the Ottoman Empire". https://www.politika.io/en/notice/state-domination-in-turkey-and-the-ottoman-empire. 
  11. ↑ "The Survival of Kurdish Identity in Turkey" (in en-US). https://hrf.org/latest/the-survival-of-kurdish-identity-in-turkey/. 
  12. ↑ Nykanen, Johanna (2013-04-01). "Identity, Narrative and Frames: Assessing Turkey's Kurdish Initiatives" (in tr). Insight Turkey. https://www.insightturkey.com/articles/identity-narrative-and-frames-assessing-turkeys-kurdish-initiatives. 
  13. ↑ Tezcür, Güneş Murat (2009-12-29). "Kurdish Nationalism and Identity in Turkey: A Conceptual Reinterpretation" (in en). European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey (10). doi:10.4000/ejts.4008. ISSN 1773-0546. https://journals.openedition.org/ejts/4008. 
  14. ↑ "The Fate of the Kurds | Origins" (in en). 2020-01-19. https://origins.osu.edu/article/kurds-stateless-turkey-syria-iraq-iran. 
  15. ↑ Middle East Review. 17. World Peace Publications. 1984. https://books.google.com/books?id=hSgdAQAAMAAJ. 
  16. ↑ Liebisch-Gümüş, Carolin (May 2020). "Embedded Turkification". International Journal of Middle East Studies 52 (2): 229–244. doi:10.1017/S0020743819000904. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/embedded-turkification-nation-building-and-violence-within-the-framework-of-the-league-of-nations-19191937/92FBA349455454FCFD2EDC8C20F982F5. Retrieved 2025-05-17. 
  17. ↑ Anderson (13 July 2016). "The Kurdish Conflict". https://www.beyondintractability.org/casestudy/anderson-kurds. 
  18. ↑ (in en) Breakthrough. Prairie Fire Organization Committee.. 1991. https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5sgAQAAIAAJ. 
  19. ↑ "The Kurdish Issue: A Turkish Point of View". https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/iai/iai_99som01.html. 
  20. ↑ "The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey" (in en-US). 2023-01-26. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 
  21. ↑ Institute, Washington Kurdish (2020-08-08). "For the Turkish government, Kurdish Art and Culture is a threat" (in en-US). https://dckurd.org/2020/08/08/for-the-turkish-government-kurdish-art-and-culture-is-a-threat/. 
  22. ↑ "RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF THE KURDISH LANGUAGE". https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/turkey/turkey993-08.htm. 
  23. ↑ "Kurdish Language Policy in Turkey" (in en-GB). https://kurdishacademy.org/?page_id=253. 
  24. ↑ "Kurds in Türkiye" (in en). Minority Rights Group. 2023-10-16. https://minorityrights.org/communities/kurds-2/. 
  25. ↑ "Türkiye: Situation of Kurds, including in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir; situation of supporters or perceived supporters of the Peoples' Democratic Party (Halkların Demokratik Partisi, HDP); situation of Alevi Kurds (2022–November 2024) [TUR202089.E"] (in en). 2024-11-29. https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2120190.html. 
  26. ↑ Aktar, Ayhan (January 2009). ""Turkification" Policies in the Early Republican Era". https://www.academia.edu/884487. 
  27. ↑ "Turkey: Violations of Free Expression in Turkey". 1999. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/turkey/turkey993-08.htm. 
  28. ↑ Denizeau, Aurélien; Örmeci, Ozan (2022-09-02) (in en). Turkish-French Relations: History, Present, and the Future. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-031-07988-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=JQ-HEAAAQBAJ. 
  29. ↑ "Kurds in Turkey struggle for access to Kurdish language education". 12 May 2024. https://duvarenglish.com/kurds-in-turkey-struggle-for-access-to-kurdish-language-education-news-65348. 
  30. ↑ "Kurdish Repression in Turkey | Cultural Survival" (in en). 2010-02-09. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/kurdish-repression-turkey. 
  31. ↑ "Turkey: Freedom on the Net 2023". 2023. https://freedomhouse.org/country/turkey/freedom-net/2023. 
  32. ↑ "Turkey: Violations of Free Expression in Turkey". 1999. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/turkey/turkey993-08.htm. 
  33. ↑ "The DEM Party and Turkey's Kurdish Issue". https://www.mei.edu/publications/dem-party-and-turkeys-kurdish-issue. 
  34. ↑ Janet Lambert. "Racialization in Turkey and the Exclusion of Kurdish Identity". University of Leeds. https://cers.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/97/2016/04/Racialization-in-Turkey-and-the-exclusion-of-Kurdish-identity-Janet-Lambert.pdf. 
  35. ↑ "Kurds in Turkey – Waiting for a Turning Point". 2024-11-27. https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2024-11-27/kurds-turkey-waiting-a-turning-point. 
  36. ↑ Rights, United Nations Commission on Human (1986) (in en). Summary Record of the Meeting. The Commission. https://books.google.com/books?id=soSbPjCZVmQC. 
  37. ↑ Williams, Jessie (2023-07-18). "'We Are Keeping the Kurdish Culture Alive.' Resilience in the Face of Repression in Turkey" (in en-US). https://dawnmena.org/we-are-keeping-the-kurdish-culture-alive-resilience-in-the-face-of-repression-in-turkey/. 
  38. ↑ Bodette, Meghan (2024-04-08). "Why Some Kurds Side With Turkey and Iran" (in en-US). https://www.kurdishpeace.org/research/government/why-some-kurds-side-with-turkey-and-iran/. 

Further reading

  • Gunes, Cengiz (2024), "The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: The Central Role of Identity Recognition (or Lack Thereof)", Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society 22 (1): pp. 65–79, doi:10.1080/17449057.2023.2275229 
  • Çandar, Cengiz (2017), "The Kurdish Question in Turkey", Journal of Democracy 28 (2): pp. 122–135, doi:10.1353/jod.2017.0034 

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