Social:Tertiary education

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Short description: Third stage of education for adults
Students attend a linear algebra lecture at a tertiary institution: Helsinki University of Technology in Finland.
A student learning about automotive repair at the Chawama Youth Resource Centre in Lusaka, Zambia

Tertiary education (also called higher education or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools.[1] Higher education is taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, while vocational education beyond secondary education is known as further education in the United Kingdom, or included under the category of continuing education in the United States.

Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.

UNESCO stated that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields. It includes academic and higher vocational education.[2] The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work[3] argues that given the future of work and the increasing role of technology in value chains, tertiary education is becoming even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market.

Definition

A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at Germanna Community College in Virginia.

Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. This consists of universities, colleges and polytechnics that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.

The International Standard Classification of Education in 1997 initially classified all tertiary education together in the 1997 version of its schema. They were referred to as level 5 and doctoral studies at level 6. In 2011, this was refined and expanded in the 2011 version of the structure. Higher education at undergraduate level, masters and doctoral level became levels 6, 7, and 8. Nondegree level tertiary education, sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education was reordered as level 4, with level 5 for some higher courses.[4]

In the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education or basic education, the term "higher education" was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion.[note 1] This is the origin of the term high school for various schools for children between the ages of 14 and 18 (United States) or 11 and 18 (United Kingdom and Australia).[5]

History

<hiero>pr-anx-pr</hiero>
House of Life
'library'
in hieroglyphs
Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.
Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, University of Naples Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.[6][7]

The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female doctors); extant Egyptian papyri from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.[8]

In the Greek world, Plato's Academy (c. 387–86 BCE), Aristotle's Lyceum (c. 334–86 BCE) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in Alexandria of Egypt, under the Ptolemies.

In South Asia, the city of Taxila[when?], later the great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda (c. 427–1197 CE), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.[9]

In China, the Han dynasty established chairs to teach the Five Confucean Classics, in the Grand School, Taixue (c. 3–1905 CE), to train cadres for the imperial administration.[10][11] All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.[12]


According to UNESCO and Guinness World Records, the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco is the oldest existing continually operating higher educational institution in the world.[13][14] and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.[15] Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, was first established in 737. The University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation,[16][17][18][19][20] and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation.[19][16][17][18]

20th century

Since World War II, developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.[21][22] In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.[23] Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.[24][25]

21st century

In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging grade inflation.[26][27] Widening participation can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification and educational inflation.[28][29] Some commentators have suggested that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.[30] The Israeli-funded Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy and some Israeli media have claimed that involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, in particular in connection with Gaza war protests.[31] [32]

Enrollment

Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014

Globally, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017, with the female enrollment ratio exceeding the male ratio by 4 percentage points.[33]

The tertiary gross enrollment ratio ranges from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income countries, where, after rapid growth in the 2000s, reached a plateau in the 2010s.[33]

Between now and 2030, the biggest increase in tertiary enrollment ratios is expected in middle-income countries, where it will reach 52%. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) commits countries to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, including tertiary education.[33]

This commitment is monitored through the global indicator for target 4.3 in the sustainable development goal 4 (SDG 4), which measures the participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, whether for work or non-work purposes.[33]

The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares, in Article 13, that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".[34] In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education.[35]

University completion rates for students with disabilities are much lower compared to completion rates of students without disabilities.[36]

Grade and educational inflation

Some tertiary schools have been criticized as having permitted or actively encouraged grade inflation.[26][37] In addition, certain scholars contend that the supply of graduates in some fields of study is exceeding the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment and educational inflation.[38][39]

Effects

See also: Social:Academic bias

Graduates of tertiary education are likely to have different worldviews and moral values than non-graduates. Graduates are also more likely to embrace cultural and ethnic diversity and express more positive views towards minority groups. For international relationships, graduates are more likely to favor openness, supporting policies like free trade, open borders, and more liberal policies regarding international migration.[40]

Tertiary education has been linked to increases in human capital and economic growth, as well as reductions in poverty.[41][42] A 2025 study found evidence suggesting that those who attend college are less prone to indoctrination.[43]

Providers

Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French, Columbia University. The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used to describe the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

In the U.S., higher education is provided by universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, conservatories, and institutes of technology, and certain college-level institutions, including vocational schools, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-based colleges that award degrees. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.[44][45]

Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, as exists in medical schools and dental schools, and social services activities of universities.[46]

Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level (or postgraduate level). The latter level of education is often referred to as graduate school, especially in North America. In addition to the skills that are specific to any particular degree, potential employers in any profession are looking for evidence of critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills, teamworking skills, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making skills, fluency in speaking and writing, problem solving skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences.[47]

Credential evaluation

Foreign tertiary degrees can be validated after credential evaluation, for example according to the Lisbon Recognition Convention.[48]

Statistics

The total expenditure on tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8) as a percentage of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table

Country Tertiary Education expenditure as % of GDP 2020[49]
 Australia 1.9
 Austria 1.8
 Belgium 1.6
 Bulgaria 1.2
 Canada 2.4
 Chile 2.7
 Colombia 1.5
 Costa Rica 1.6
 Croatia 1.2
 Czech Republic 1.1
 Denmark 1.9
 Estonia 1.5
 Finland 1.6
 France 1.6
 Germany 1.3
 Greece 0.9
 Hungary 0.9
 Iceland 1.4
 Ireland 0.8
 Israel 1.4
 Italy 1.0
 Japan 1.4
 Latvia 1.4
 Lithuania 1.2
 Luxembourg 0.5
 Mexico 1.2
 Netherlands 1.8
 New Zealand 1.6
 Norway 2.0
 Poland 1.3
 Portugal 1.3
 Romania 0.8
 Slovakia 1.1
 Slovenia 1.2
 South Korea 1.5
 Spain 1.5
 Sweden 1.6
 Turkey 1.5
 United Kingdom 1.5
 United States of America 2.5

The percentage of adults who have attained individual tertiary education levels by country is shown in the following table.

Country Ages 25–64: % attaining a tertiary degree course equivalent to at least:[50]
Any tertiary Bachelor's Master's Doctoral
 Argentina 24.8 1.4
 Australia 51.5 39.4 10.9 1.9
 Austria 35.6 20.4 14.8 1.2
 Belgium 45.8 45.0 20.1 1.1
 Brazil 21.0 21.0 1.0 0.3
 Bulgaria 29.8 29.8 20.4 0.3
 Canada 62.7
 Chile 31.4
 China 18.5
 Colombia 28.3
 Costa Rica 25.3
 Czech Republic 26.7 26.5 19.7 0.7
 Denmark 42.1 37.0 16.3 1.5
 Estonia 42.1 36.5 21.8 0.8
 Finland 42.6 35.1 17.3 1.3
 France 41.6 27.2 15.2 1.0
 Germany 32.5 31.9 13.6 1.9
 Greece 35.1 34.7 9.3 0.9
 Hungary 29.4 28.5 13.9 0.5
 India 12.9 12.9 3.4 3.4
 Indonesia 13.1 10.3 0.8 0.0
 Iceland 43.6 39.4 18.1 1.2
 Ireland 54.4 44.3 16.6 1.7
 Israel 50.6 39.6 15.2 1.2
 Italy 20.3 20.2 14.6 0.6
 Japan 56.1
 Latvia 39.5 35.1 18.4 0.4
 Lithuania 46.5 46.5 16.5 0.8
 Luxembourg 51.5 46.6 31.4 2.9
 Mexico 20.6 20.1 1.9 0.1
 Netherlands 44.7 42.4 18.2 1.2
 New Zealand 39.8 35.8 6.3 1.1
 Norway 48.1 36.5 15.4 1.5
 Poland 33.9 33.8 26.2 0.8
 Portugal 31.5 31.2 21.7 0.9
 Romania 19.7
 Slovakia 29.2 29.1 25.3 0.9
 Slovenia 40.1 31.7 20.1 3.7
 South Korea 52.8
 South Africa 13.9
 Spain 41.1 28.5 17.2 0.8
 Sweden 48.5 38.7 18.7 2.0
 Switzerland 44.7 44.7 20.0 3.2
 Turkey 25.0 18.3 2.3 0.4
 United Kingdom 51.3 42.3 15.8 1.7
 United States of America 50.0 39.4 14.4 2.1

A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries. Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers. In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men. Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. By 2014, close to 40 percent of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.[51]

By region

Australia

Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universities
Main article: Organization:Tertiary education in Australia

Within Australia, "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school. Tertiary education options include universities, technical and further education (TAFE) and private universities.[52]

Europe

Although tertiary education in the EU includes university, it can differ from country to country.

France

After going to nursery school (French: école maternelle), elementary school (French: école primaire), middle school (French: collège), and high school (French: lycée), a student may go to university, but may also stop at that point.

Italy

See also: Organization:Higher education in Italy and List of universities in Italy
Sapienza University of Rome. It was founded in 1303 and is as such one of the world's oldest universities,[53] and with 122,000 students, it is the largest university in Europe.[54]

Education in Italy is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age,[55] and is divided into five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria or scuola elementare), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado or scuola media inferiore), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado or scuola media superiore) and university (università).[56] Education is free in Italy and free education is available to children of all nationalities who are residents in Italy. Italy has both a private and public education system.[57]

The Polytechnic University of Milan is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. It is the best university in Italy.[58]
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in Milan, Italy, with satellite campuses in Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona and Rome. Degrees are offered both in Italian and in English.[59]

Italy has a large and international network of public or state-affiliated universities and schools offering degrees in higher education. State-run universities of Italy constitute the main percentage of tertiary education in Italy and are managed under the supervision of Italian's Ministry of Education.

Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the University of Bologna (founded in 1088) notably, is the oldest one ever; also, University of Naples Federico II is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.[60][7] Most universities in Italy are state-supported. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.[61]

There are also a number of Superior Graduate Schools (Grandes écoles)[62] or Scuola Superiore Universitaria, which offer officially recognized titles, including the Diploma di Perfezionamento equivalent to a Doctorate, Dottorato di Ricerca i.e. Research Doctorate or Doctor Philosophiae i.e. PhD.[63] Some of them also organize master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools with "university status", three institutes with the status of Doctoral Colleges, which function at graduate and post-graduate level. Nine further schools are direct offshoots of the universities (i.e. do not have their own 'university status'). The first one is the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa (founded in 1810 by Napoleon as a branch of École Normale Supérieure), taking the model of organization from the famous École Normale Supérieure. These institutions are commonly referred to as "Schools of Excellence" (i.e. "Scuole di Eccellenza").[62][64]

Italy hosts a broad variety of universities, colleges and academies. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is likely the oldest in the world.[65] In 2009, the University of Bologna is, according to The Times, the only Italian college in the top 200 World Universities. Milan's Bocconi University has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world by The Wall Street Journal international rankings, especially thanks to its M.B.A. program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies.[66] Bocconi was also ranked by Forbes as the best worldwide in the specific category Value for Money.[67] In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in the Financial Times Executive education ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. 15 in the world.[68]

Other top universities and polytechnics are the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan, the LUISS in Rome, the Polytechnic University of Turin, the Politecnico di Milano (which in 2011 was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by QS World University Rankings[69]), the University of Rome La Sapienza (which in 2005 was Europe's 33rd best university,[70] and ranks among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges[71] and in 2013, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Sapienza University of Rome 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.[72]) and the University of Milan (whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognition). This university is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities. It has also been awarded ranking positions such as 1st in Italy and 7th in Europe (The Leiden Ranking – Universiteit Leiden).

Portugal

Ukraine

United Kingdom

Under devolution in the United Kingdom, education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "higher education" (i.e. post-18 study).[73] In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales.[74] Since the 1970s, however, specialized further education colleges in England and Wales have called themselves "tertiary colleges" although being part of the secondary education process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a sixth form college.[75] Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16–19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11–16). However the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 has effectively prevented the creation of new tertiary colleges.[76]

North America

Canada

Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021[77]
This section is an excerpt from Higher education in Canada[ edit ]

United States

The University of Pennsylvania, an American research university

The higher education system in the United States is decentralized and regulated independently by each state[78] with accreditors playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.[79]

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.[80] US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.[81][82]

Africa

Nigeria

Federal Polytechnic, Nekede in Owerri, Nigeria

In Nigeria, tertiary education refers to post-secondary education received at universities (government or privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education. After completing a secondary education, students may enroll in a tertiary institution or acquire a vocational education. Students are required to sit for the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB) as well as the Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or General Certificate Examination (GCE) and meet varying cut-off marks to gain admission into a tertiary institution.[83]

Asia

Japan

University of Tokyo, a research university in Tokyo

According to MEXT (Ministry of Education) and UNESCO, following types of education are classified as tertiary education: University education (undergraduate, postgraduate and professional degrees), two-year colleges (Tanki Daigaku), colleges of technology and specialised colleges.[84]

Hong Kong

Chinese University of Hong Kong, one of Hong Kong's universities

In Hong Kong "tertiary education" or "higher education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes universities, post secondary colleges, statutory universities, and publicly funded institutions.

Philippines

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ For example, Higher Education: General and Technical, a 1933 National Union of Teachers pamphlet by Lord Eustace Percy, which is actually about secondary education and uses the two terms interchangeably.

References

  1. ↑ "Tertiary Education". World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why. 
  2. ↑ "Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8)". UNESCO. https://uis.unesco.org/node/334812. 
  3. ↑ "World Bank World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work.". http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf. 
  4. ↑ Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) . Retrieved 5 April 2012.
  5. ↑ "high school". https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/high-school. 
  6. ↑ Storia d'Italia. 4. Torino: UTET. 7 August 1981. p. 122. ISBN 88-02-03568-7. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Delle Donne, Fulvio (2010) (in it). Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva. Mario Adda Editore. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-88-8082-841-9. 
  8. ↑ Gordan, Andrew H.; Shwabe, Calvin W. (2004). The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt. Egyptological Memoirs. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-90-04-12391-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA154. 
  9. ↑ Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1989). Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist. History and Culture Series (2nd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC. 
  10. ↑ Balazs, Étienne (1968) (in fr). La Bureaucratie céleste: recherches sur l'économie et la société de la Chine traditionnelle. Bibliothèque des sciences humaines. Paris: Gallimard. 
  11. ↑ Peter Tze Ming Ng (2001), "Paradigm shift and the state of the field in the study of Christian higher education in China", Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie (12): pp. 127–140 
  12. ↑ Yang, Rui (2019-09-02). "Emulating or integrating? Modern transformations of Chinese higher education" (in en). Journal of Asian Public Policy 12 (3): 294–311. doi:10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213. ISSN 1751-6234. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213. 
  13. ↑ "Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university". https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-university. 
  14. ↑ "Medina of Fez". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170. 
  15. ↑ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities". http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Gaston, Paul L. (2010). The challenge of Bologna: What United States higher education has to learn from Europe, and why it matters that we learn it. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-57922-366-3. OCLC 320189904. https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Janin, Hunt (2008). The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 55f. ISBN 978-0-7864-3462-6. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages , Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. 47–55
  20. ↑ "The Porticoes of Bologna" (in fr). https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/. 
  21. ↑ Trow, Martin (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education (Report). Berkeley: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED091983.pdf. Retrieved 1 August 2013. 
  22. ↑ Brennan, John (2002). "The social role of the contemporary university: contradictions, boundaries and change". Ten years on: Changing higher education in a changing world. Buckingham: Centre for Higher Education Research and Information, Open University. pp. 22–26. https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22. Retrieved 9 February 2014. 
  23. ↑ Trow, Martin (2005-08-05), Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal access: forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since WWII, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213  Republished in Forest, James J. F., ed (2006-04-20). International Handbook of Higher Education: Part One: Global Themes and Contemporary Challenges. Springer International Handbooks of Education. 18. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 243–280. ISBN 978-1-4020-4011-5. OCLC 65166668. https://books.google.com/books?id=u3rtCh-EUIIC&pg=PA243. 
  24. ↑ Simkovic, Michael (5 September 2011). "Risk-Based Student Loans". Washington and Lee Law Review. 
  25. ↑ OECD (2011), Education at a Glance 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Gunn, Andrew; Kapade, Priya (25 May 2018), The university grade inflation debate is going global, University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180523095429859#., retrieved 23 June 2019, "T he grading process has been compromised as universities are incentivised to meet the demands of their customers and graduate more students with top grades to boost their institutional ranking." 
  27. ↑ Baker, Simon (28 June 2018), Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?, Times Higher Education, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend, retrieved 23 June 2019, "Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation." 
  28. ↑ Coates, Ken; Morrison, Bill (2016), Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis, Toronto: Dundurn Books, p. 232, ISBN 978-1-4597-3377-0, https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories, retrieved 2021-09-21 
  29. ↑ Brown, Phillip; Lauder, Hugh; Ashton, David (2012), The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes, Oxford University Press, p. 208, ISBN 978-0-19-992644-2, https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en&, retrieved 2020-12-11 
  30. ↑ Kaplan, Andreas (2021-04-06). Higher education at the crossroads of disruption: The university of the 21st century. Emerald. doi:10.1108/9781800715011. ISBN 978-1-80071-504-2. https://books.emeraldinsight.com/page/detail/Higher-Education-at-the-Crossroads-of-Disruption/?k=9781800715042. 
  31. ↑ "Follow the Money: Qatar Funding of Higher Education". https://isgap.org/follow-the-money/. 
  32. ↑ Shulman, Sophie (30 October 2023). "Tuition of terror: Qatari money flowed into U.S. universities - and now it's fueling violence". CTech (Rishon LeZion, Israel: Yedioth Ahronoth Group). https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/jwhsqhrat. Retrieved 30 April 2024. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 #CommitToEducation. UNESCO. 2019. ISBN 978-92-3-100336-3. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000370738. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  34. ↑ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 
  35. ↑ "Protocol No. 1 to the Convention - Toolkit" (in en-GB). https://www.coe.int/en/web/echr-toolkit/protocole-1. 
  36. ↑ Thompson, Stephen (2020), "Developing disability-inclusive higher education systems", International Higher Education (100), https://www.internationalhighereducation.net/api-v1/article/!/action/getPdfOfArticle/articleID/2813/productID/29/filename/article-id-2813.pdf, retrieved 22 April 2022 
  37. ↑ Baker, Simon (28 June 2018). "Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?". Times Higher Education. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend. "Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation." 
  38. ↑ Coates, Ken; Morrison, Bill (2016), Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis, Toronto: Dundurn Books, p. 232, ISBN 978-1-4597-3377-0, https://www.dundurn.com/books/Dream-Factories, retrieved 18 July 2020 
  39. ↑ Brown, Phillip; Lauder, Hugh; Ashton, David (2012), "The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes", International Review of Education (Oxford University Press) 57 (5–6): 208, doi:10.1007/s11159-011-9242-8, ISBN 978-0-19-992644-2, Bibcode: 2011IREdu..57..785A, https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442 
  40. ↑ Ford, Robert; Jennings, Will (2020). "The Changing Cleavage Politics of Western Europe". Annual Review of Political Science 23: 295–314. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-052217-104957. 
  41. ↑ Valero, Anna; Van Reenen, John (2019). "The economic impact of universities: Evidence from across the globe". Economics of Education Review 68: 53–67. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.09.001. 
  42. ↑ Gethin, Amory (2025-10-11). "Distributional Growth Accounting: Education and the Reduction of Global Poverty, 1980–2019" (in en). The Quarterly Journal of Economics 140 (4): 2571–2618. doi:10.1093/qje/qjaf033. ISSN 0033-5533. https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/140/4/2571/8210388. 
  43. ↑ Argote, Pablo; Voytas, Elsa (2025). "The Anti-Left Legacy of the Pinochet Dictatorship" (in EN). Comparative Political Studies. doi:10.1177/00104140251381768. ISSN 0010-4140. https://journals.sagepub.com/action/showAbstract. 
  44. ↑ "The Difference Between Continuing Education and Professional Development". 1 April 2021. https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/blog/april-2021/continuing-education-and-professional-development/. 
  45. ↑ "6 Reasons Why Continuing Education Is Important" (in en). Western Governors University. 26 April 2019. https://www.wgu.edu/blog/6-reasons-continuing-education-important1904.html. 
  46. ↑ Pucciarelli F., Kaplan Andreas M. (2016) Competition and Strategy in Higher Education: Managing Complexity and Uncertainty , Business Horizons, Volume 59
  47. ↑ Jenkins, Anne (20 January 2015). "Employers Judge Recent Graduates Ill-Prepared for Today's Workplace, Endorse Broad and Project-Based Learning as Best Preparation for Career Opportunity and Long-Term Success" (Press release). Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities. Archived from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
  48. ↑ "Lisbon Recognition Convention". https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/highereducation/recognition/lrc_EN.asp. 
  49. ↑ OECD.stat Educational Finance Indicators Indicator C2: Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, 2020
  50. ↑ OECD.stat Educational attainment and labour-force status, Educational attainment of 2-64 year-olds, 2022
  51. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (September 2014). "Higher levels of education paying off for young, says OECD". http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm. 
  52. ↑ "Education and Work, Australia, May 2022 | Australian Bureau of Statistics" (in en). Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2022-10-11. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/education-and-work-australia/latest-release. 
  53. ↑ "La Storia". https://www.uniroma1.it/it/pagina/la-storia. 
  54. ↑ "Chi Siamo". https://www.uniroma1.it/it/pagina/chi-siamo. 
  55. ↑ "comma 622". Camera.it. 2 December 2006. http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/06296l.htm. 
  56. ↑ "- Human Development Reports". January 2008. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf. 
  57. ↑ Bertola, Giuseppe; Checchi, Daniele; Oppedisano, Veruska (December 2007). "Private School Quality in Italy" (in en). Discussion Paper Series (IZA Institute of Labor Economics) (IZA DP No. 3222). http://ftp.iza.org/dp3222.pdf. 
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  59. ↑ "Catholic universities in Europe, Italy study abroad, Milan semester programs". Learn4Good. 2012-01-07. http://www.learn4good.com/universities/search_study_abroad_university_programs.htm. 
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Sources

Further reading

  • Alkamel, Mohammed Adulkareem A.; Chouthaiwale, Santosh S.; Yassin, Amr Abdullatif; AlAjmi, Qasim; Albaadany, Hanan Yahia (March 2021). "Online Testing in Higher Education Institutions During the Outbreak of COVID-19: Challenges and Opportunities". in Arpaci, Ibrahim; Al-Emran, Mostafa; Al-Sharafi, Mohammed A. et al.. Emerging Technologies During the Era of COVID-19 Pandemic. Studies in Systems, Decision and Control. 348. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 349–363. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67716-9_22. ISBN 978-3-030-67715-2. 
  • Council of Europe Higher Education Series
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age varies (usually 18–22) 		Succeeded by
Graduate school

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