Medicine:Prevalence of rabies

From HandWiki
Revision as of 00:19, 5 February 2024 by S.Timg (talk | contribs) (url)
(diff) ← Older revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
Short description: Epidemiological topic

Almost all human deaths caused by rabies occur in Asia and Africa.

There are an estimated 59,000 human deaths annually from rabies worldwide.[1] However, this data is not substantiated by the WHO reports registering numbers of death attributed by rabies, worldwide. Reported numbers often add up to less than 1000 yearly. (https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/reported-number-of-human-rabies-deaths)

Dog licensing, euthanasia of stray dogs, muzzling, and other measures contributed to the elimination of rabies from the United Kingdom in the early 20th century. More recently, large-scale vaccination of cats, dogs and ferrets has been successful in combating rabies in many developed countries, such as Turkey, where pre-exposure vaccinations have been used to combat the prevalence of rabies.[2]

Rabies is a zoonotic disease, caused by the rabies virus. The rabies virus, a member of the Lyssavirus genus of the Rhabdoviridae family, survives in a diverse variety of animal species, including bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, wolves, coyotes, dogs, mongoose, weasels, cats, cattle, domestic farm animals, groundhogs, bears, and wild carnivores. However, dogs are the principal host in Asia, parts of the Americas, and large parts of Africa. Oral vaccines can be safely administered to wild animals through bait, a method initiated on a large scale in Belgium and that has successfully reduced rabies in rural areas of Canada , France , the United States , and elsewhere. For example, in Montreal baits are successfully ingested by raccoons in the Mount Royal park area.

Asia

An estimated 31,000 human deaths due to rabies occur annually in Asia,[3] with the majority – approximately 20,000 – concentrated in India .[4] Worldwide, India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world primarily due to stray dogs. Because of a decline in the number of vultures due to acute poisoning by the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (vultures themselves are not susceptible to rabies), animal carcasses that would have been consumed by vultures instead became available for consumption by feral dogs, resulting in a growth of the dog population and thus a larger pool of carriers for the rabies virus.[5][6] Another reason for the great increase in the number of stray dogs is the 2001 law that forbade the killing of dogs.[7]

In many Asian countries which still have a high prevalence of rabies, such as Myanmar and Nepal, the virus is primarily transmitted through canines (feral dogs and other wild canine species).[8] Countries with high canine rabies prevalence often lack robust national rabies surveillance/control programs and have limited canine rabies vaccine availability.[9] Legalized dog consumption, in countries such as Vietnam, is another source of high rabies incidence in Southeast Asia. One study reported that 28.3% of dog butchers in Vietnam were at high risk of rabies infection, but only 8.1% were vaccinated.[10] Another source of rabies in Asia is the pet boom.

Mainland China

Historically rabies was highly endemic in China , with few/inconsistent attempts to control transmission due to the lack of healthcare infrastructure. More than 5,200 deaths were reported annually during the period 1987 - 1989.[11] Infection is seasonal, with most cases reported during the winter and spring, with dogs being the most common animal vector.[12] The highest number of recorded cases was recorded in 1981, with 7,037 human infections.[13] It wasn't until the 1990s that death rates decreased, as eradication efforts started being implemented on a nationwide level. The incidence of rabies decreased to fewer than 2,000 cases per annum by 2011.[11] Despite this progress, rabies is still the fourth most common cause of death amongst category A and B infectious diseases, following HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and viral hepatitis in 2018.[14]

Chinese law requires all diagnosed rabies cases to be recorded in the National Notifiable Disease Reporting System (NNDRS) within 24 hours of diagnosis. Additionally, a questionnaire is used to interview patients and family members, in order to collect demographic information, as well as the means of exposure.[12]

Due to China's open organ transplant policy, an additional vector for the transmission of rabies is via donated organs. There have been 4 reported cases of rabies transmission through organ donation in China.[15] The first occurred in 2015, where a previously healthy 2-year-old patient was checked in to a hospital with unspecified symptoms. Rabies virus antibody tests were performed on serum samples and yielded negative results, which allowed the body to be used for donations despite suspicions from the clinical staff. The donor's kidneys and liver were transplanted to three other patients, who eventually died due to the rabies virus.[16]

In 2006 China introduced the "one-dog policy" in Beijing to control the problem.[17] In 2021, the Law on Animal Epidemic Prevention was revised, and now requires dog owners to ensure routine vaccination and register the vaccine certificate.[18]

Indonesia

The island of Bali in Indonesia has been undergoing a severe outbreak of canine rabies since 2008, that has also killed about 78 humans as of late September 2010.[19] Unlike predominantly Muslim parts of Indonesia, in Bali many dogs are kept as pets and strays are tolerated in residential areas.[20] Efforts are under way[when?] to vaccinate pets and strays, as well as selective culling of some strays,[19] to control the outbreak. As Bali is a popular tourist destination, visitors are advised to consider rabies vaccinations before going there, if they will be touching animals.[21]

Israel

Since 1948, 29 people have been reported dead from rabies in Israel. The last death was in 2003, when a 58-year-old Bedouin woman was bitten by a cat and became infected. She was not inoculated and later died.[22]

Rabies is not endemic to Israel, but is imported from neighbouring countries. The areas of highest prevalence are along the northern region, which are close to Lebanon and Syria. Since the early 2000s, The Ministry of Agriculture and Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority (ILA) have dropped oral vaccines from planes in open and agricultural areas. The vaccine comes in the form of 3 by 3 cm. dumplings, made with an ingredient preferred by wild animals, and which contain a transgenic rabies virus. Cases of animal rabies dropped from 58 in 2009 to 29 in 2016.[23]

Japan

Rabies existed in Japan with a particular spike in the mid-1920s, but a dog vaccination campaign and increased stray dog control reduced cases.[24] The Rabies Control Act was enacted in 1950, and[25] the last human and animal cases were reported in 1954 and 1957,[26] and Japan is believed to have been rabies-free since 1957.[27]

There have been four imported cases since then, a college student who died in 1970, two elderly men who had traveled to the Philippines and been bitten there by rabid dogs, and then died after returning to Japan, and a man in his 30s who also was bitten by a rabid dog in the Philippines and died in 2020.[24][28][29][30]

Africa

Approximately 24,000 people die from rabies annually in Africa,[31] which accounts for almost half the total rabies deaths worldwide each year. Africa is the second leading continent in prevalence of rabies, with the first being Asia.[32] It is theorized that rabies was spread to Africa through colonization from Europe, and from there spread from central Africa to the rest of the continent over time.[33] The canine population in Africa is a contributor of the high number of rabies infections, compared to other continents.[34] The treatments used for the prevention of rabies, (post-exposure prophylaxis, and pre-exposure prophylaxis) can be high in price, and this may be another contributing factor to the high percentage of rabies infections from in Africa, and similar countries that do not have the vaccines and treatments readily available.[35] The cost of the vaccination and the large population of dogs, who can easily spread the virus, means that Africa has a higher risk of rabies than countries who have had mass vaccinations.[36]

South Africa

In South Africa , about a dozen cases of human rabies are confirmed every year[37] and it is particularly widespread in the north-eastern regions of the Eastern Cape, the eastern and south-eastern areas of Mpumalanga, northern Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal.[38] Dogs are the main vector (especially in the east of the country) for the disease but also wildlife, including the bat-eared fox, yellow mongoose and black-backed jackal.[39] The death rate of 13 per annum over the decade 2001–2010 [40] is a rate of approximately 0.26 per million population. This is approximately 30 times the rate in the United States but 1/90 of the African average. The number of cases per province over the last decade is as follows:[41]

Year Eastern Cape Free State Gauteng KwaZulu-Natal Limpopo Mpumalanga Northern Cape North-West Western Cape South Africa
2001       6   1       7
2002       8     1    1  10
2003 1     9       1   11
2004       7   1       8
2005 3 1   3           7
2006 4     4 22     1   31
2007 6     8 1         15
2008 8     5 3 1       17
2009 7     4 2 2       15
2010 2   1 3 3 1 1    1  12
2001 to 2010 31 1 1 57 31 6 2 2 2 133
2011 1 2 3 6
2012 1 1 4 3 1 10
2013 2 1 3 1 7
2014 3 1 1 5
2015 3 1 1 3 8
Average 2.6 0.3 0.1 5.4 2.9 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 11.3

North America

United States

The United States, as with other developed countries, has seen a dramatic decrease in the number of human infections and deaths due to the rabies virus. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the stark reduction in the number of rabies cases is attributable to the elimination of canine rabies through vaccination, the vaccination of wildlife, education about the virus, and timely administration of post-exposure prophylaxis. Currently, in the U.S., only one to three cases of rabies are reported annually. Since 2008 there have been 23 cases of human rabies infection, eight of which were due to exposures outside of the U.S.[42] Human exposure to the virus is dependent on the prevalence of the virus in animals, thus investigations into the incidence and distribution of animal populations is vital. A breakdown of the results obtained from animal surveillance in the U.S. for 2015 revealed that wild animals accounted for 92.4% and domestic animals accounted for 7.6% of all reported cases.[43] In wild animals, bats were the most frequently reported rabid species (30.9% of cases during 2015), followed by raccoons (29.4%), skunks (24.8%), and foxes (5.9%).[44]

Southern United States

Rabies was once rare in the United States outside the Southern states, but raccoons in the mid-Atlantic and northeast United States have had a rabies epidemic since the 1970s, that is now moving westwards into Ohio.[45] Most westward expansion has been prevented via the action of Oral Rabies Vaccination (ORV) programs.[46]

Cases of animal rabies in the United States in 2001

The particular variant of the virus has been identified in the southeastern United States raccoon population since the 1950s, and is believed to have traveled to the northeast as the result of infected raccoons being among those caught and transported from the southeast to the northeast by human hunters attempting to replenish the declining northeast raccoon population.[47] As a result, urban residents of these areas have become more wary of the large but normally unseen urban raccoon population. Whether as a result of increased vigilance or only the common human avoidance reaction to any other animal not normally seen, such as a raccoon, there has only been one documented human rabies case as a result of this variant.[48][49] This does not include, however, the greatly increasing rate of prophylactic rabies treatments in cases of possible exposure, which numbered fewer than one hundred humans annually in the state of New York before 1990, for instance, but rose to approximately ten thousand annually between 1990 and 1995. At approximately $1,500 per course of treatment, this represents a considerable public health expenditure. Raccoons do constitute approximately 50% of the approximately eight thousand documented non-human rabies cases in the United States.[50] Domestic animals constitute only 8% of rabies cases, but are increasing at a rapid rate.[50]

Midwestern United States

A rabid dog, with saliva dripping out of the mouth

In the midwestern United States, skunks are the primary carriers of rabies.[51] The most widely distributed reservoir of rabies in the United States, however, and the source of most human cases in the U.S., are bats. All five of the human rabies cases in the Midwest from 2009 to 2018 were identified genetically as strains of rabies from bats. [52]

On September 7, 2007, rabies expert Dr. Charles Rupprecht of Atlanta-based U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said that canine rabies had disappeared from the United States. Rupprecht emphasized that the disappearance of the canine-specific strain of rabies virus in the US does not eliminate the need for dog rabies vaccination as dogs can still become infected from exposure to wildlife.[53]

Southwestern United States

The primary terrestrial reservoirs for the Southwest states are skunks and foxes, with bats being identified as another important species for virus persistence in the environment. In Colorado the growing population pressures indicated by the increase in the number of residents by 9.2% between 2010 and 2016[54] has led to an elevated risk of rabies to the public. Additionally, according to Colorado Parks and Wildlife, reported cases, as well as the geographical distribution, in skunks, raccoons, and bats have increased; thereby further enhancing the likelihood of exposure. Together these increased risk factors have been documented in the state by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, which reported 141 positive animals; 95 of these reported animal cases were suspected to have exposed 180 domestic pets, 193 livestock animals, and 59 people.[55] In New Mexico the same trend of increased prevalence in wildlife has been observed with a reported 57% increase in the number of rabid bats.[56] As of 2017, there have been 11 confirmed cases of rabies in New Mexico: 5 bats, 2 skunks, 2 bobcats, and 2 foxes.[57] Conversely to these two states, Arizona in 2015 saw a drop in the number of confirmed rabies cases with a 21.3% decrease in reported skunk and fox rabies virus variants.[56] Furthermore, during that same time frame in Arizona 53.3% of all reported positive rabies cases were bats and 40% were identified as skunks.[58] Similarly, in 2015, Utah reported 22 positive cases of rabid bats.[59][56] For the year of 2016 Utah identified 20 cases of rabies, all in bat species.[60]

Canada

Rabies is extremely rare in Canada, since 1924 only 25 people have died of rabies, however rabies is endemic in Canadian wildlife.[61] (As of 2021) there were only four cases of rabies in Canada since 2000, three of which were exposed to the virus through a bat in Canada.[61] The province of Ontario continues aerial drops of baits containing rabies vaccines, which reduced the incidence of rabies by 99% since the 1990s but continues to fight a 2015 outbreak of rabies in wild racoons imported from the USA.[62][63]

Europe

Several countries in Europe have been designated rabies-free jurisdictions: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Cyprus, Denmark , Estonia,[64][Link to precise page] Finland , France , Germany , Greece, Iceland,[65] Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro,[66] the Netherlands, Norway , Portugal, Spain , Sweden, Switzerland ,[67][better source needed] and the United Kingdom .

Benelux

The Netherlands has been designated rabies-free since 1923, Belgium since 2008. Isolated cases of rabies involving illegally smuggled pets from Africa, as well as infected animals crossing the German and French borders, do occur.[68]

Germany

Nine deaths from rabies were reported in Germany between 1981 and 2005. Two were caused by animal bites within Germany (one fox, one dog), and four were acquired abroad. In the remaining three cases, the source was a transplant from an infected donor who had died of heart failure prior to developing rabies symptoms.[69] On 28 September 2008, the World Organisation for Animal Health declared Germany free of rabies.[70]

Ireland

In 1897 the Disease of Animals Act included provisions to prevent the spread of rabies throughout Ireland. There have been no indigenous cases reported since 1903. In 2009, four people in Dublin received rabies vaccination therapy after being bitten by an imported kitten, although subsequent examination of the kitten yielded a negative result for rabies.[71][72]

Norway

The death of a woman on 6 May 2019 from the rabies virus was reported to be the first in Norway for almost 200 years. She contracted the virus while on holiday with friends in the Philippines, and after being bitten by a stray puppy they had rescued.[73]

Spain

The first case of rabies since 1978 was confirmed in the city of Toledo, Central Spain, on 5 June 2013. The dog had been imported from Morocco. No human fatalities have been reported, although adults and children were reported to have been bitten by the animal. There was another case in 2019, although the victim was infected in Morocco, after being bitten by a cat.[74]

Switzerland

A rabies epidemic spread by red foxes reached Switzerland in 1967. After multiple solutions were tried; baiting foxes with chicken heads laced with vaccine proved to be the most successful. Switzerland has been rabies free since the 1990s.[67]

United Kingdom

The UK was declared rabies free in 1902 but there were further outbreaks after 1918 when servicemen returning from war smuggled rabid dogs back to Britain from France and Belgium. The disease was subsequently re-eradicated and Britain was declared rabies-free in 1922 after the introduction of compulsory quarantine for dogs.[69][75]

Since 1902, there have been 26 deaths in the UK from rabies (excluding the European bat lyssavirus 2 case discussed below).[69][76] A case in 1902 occurred shortly before the eradication of rabies from the UK, and no details were recorded for a case in 1919.[69] All other cases of rabies caused by rabies virus acquired the infection while abroad. Sixteen cases (62%) involved infections acquired in India , Pakistan or Bangladesh, with the remainder of infections originating in Africa and Southeast Asia.[69]

Since 2000, four deaths from rabies have occurred; none of these cases had received any post-exposure prophylactic treatment. In 2001, there were two deaths from infections acquired in Nigeria and the Philippines . One death occurred in 2005 from an infection acquired by a dog bite in Goa (western India).[69][77] A woman died on 6 January 2009 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. She is believed to have been infected in South Africa , probably from being scratched by a dog.[78][failed verification][79][80][81] Prior to this, the last reported human case of the disease in Northern Ireland was in 1938.[80][81] The most recent case was a woman who died on 28 May 2012 in London after being bitten by a dog in South Asia.[82]

A rabies-like lyssavirus, called European bat lyssavirus 2, was identified in bats in 2003.[77] In 2002, there was a fatal case in a bat handler involving infection with European bat lyssavirus 2; infection was probably acquired from a bite from a bat in Scotland.[69][77]

Oceania

Australia

Australia is free of rabies. There have been two confirmed human deaths from the disease, in 1987 and 1990. Both were contracted overseas. However, the closely related Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) has caused three deaths since its discovery in 1996; the most recent of these was in 2013, when an 8-year-old Queensland boy was scratched on the wrist by an infected bat, developing ABLV and dying 2 months afterwards.[83] There is also a report of an 1867 case.[84] Public health officials have expressed concern that the arrival of rabies in Australia is likely, given its widespread presence in nearby Indonesia.[85]

Rabies-free jurisdictions

Map of rabies-free countries and territories

Many countries and territories have been declared to be free of rabies. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published the following list on 2021 based on countries and territories that are free of rabies.[1]

  • Africa: Cape Verde, Mayotte, Ceuta, Réunion, Saint Helena
  • Americas: Falkland Islands, Galápagos Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
  • Asia and the Middle East: Bahrain, British Indian Ocean Territory, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau SAR, Maldives, Singapore
  • Europe: Andorra, Austria, Azores, Belgium, Canary Islands Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Madeira, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway (except Svalbard[86]), Portugal, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom
  • Oceania: Easter Island, American Samoa, Australia, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wake Island
  • Antarctica: Antarctica

New Zealand and Australia have never had rabies. However, in Australia, the closely related Australian bat lyssavirus occurs normally in both insectivorous and fruit-eating bats (flying foxes) from most mainland states. Scientists believe it is present in bat populations throughout the range of flying foxes in Australia. Rabies has also never been reported in Cook Islands, Jersey in the Channel Islands, mainland Norway , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Vanuatu.[87]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "CDC - Rabies around the World - Rabies". 29 July 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/world/index.html. 
  2. ↑ Oztoprak, Nefise; Berk, Hande; Kizilates, Filiz (2021-02-01). "Preventable public health challenge: Rabies suspected exposure and prophylaxis practices in southwestern of Turkey". Journal of Infection and Public Health 14 (2): 221–226. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.12.012. ISSN 1876-0341. PMID 33493918. 
  3. ↑ "Rabies" World Health Organization (WHO)
  4. ↑ "Rabies: Estimating number of human deaths from dog-mediated rabies: 2015". https://apps.who.int/neglected_diseases/ntddata/rabies/rabies.html. 
  5. ↑ Dugan, Emily (30 April 2008). "Dead as a dodo? Why scientists fear for the future of the Asian vulture". The Independent (United Kingdom). https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/dead-as-a-dodo-why-scientists-fear-for-the-future-of-of-the-asian-vulture-818059.html. "India now has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, partly due to the increase in feral dogs." 
  6. ↑ Jalihal, S; Rana, S; Sharma, S (2022). "Systematic mapping on the importance of vultures in the Indian public health discourse.". Environmental Sustainability (Singapore) 5 (2): 135–143. doi:10.1007/s42398-022-00224-x. PMID 37521585. Bibcode: 2022ESust...5..135J. 
  7. ↑ Garg, Rachit (21 June 2021). "All you need to know about the Animal Birth Control Rules, 2001". iPleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-animal-birth-control-rules-2001/. 
  8. ↑ "WHO | World Health Organization". https://apps.who.int/neglected_diseases/ntddata/rabies/rabies.html. 
  9. ↑ "Rabies Status: Assessment by Country | Resources | CDC" (in en-us). 2 March 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/resources/countries-risk.html. 
  10. ↑ Jane Ling, MY; Halim, AFNA; Ahmad, D; Ramly, N; Hassan, MR; Syed Abdul Rahim, SS; Saffree Jeffree, M; Omar, A et al. (10 May 2023). "Rabies in Southeast Asia: a systematic review of its incidence, risk factors and mortality.". BMJ Open 13 (5): e066587. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-066587. PMID 37164462. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Rabies". http://www.wpro.who.int/china/mediacentre/factsheets/rabies/en/. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Human rabies in Zhejiang Province, China". International Journal of Infectious Diseases 38: 77–82. September 2015. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2015.07.013. PMID 26216767. 
  13. ↑ "Human Rabies in China, 1960-2014: A Descriptive Epidemiological Study". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 10 (8): e0004874. August 2016. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004874. PMID 27500957. 
  14. ↑ "2018年全国法定传染病疫情概况 (National notifiable disease situation in 2018)". April 24, 2019. http://www.nhc.gov.cn/jkj/s3578/201904/050427ff32704a5db64f4ae1f6d57c6c.shtml. 
  15. ↑ Lu, Xuexin; Cai, Liang; Gao, Xin; Zhan, Zhifei; Zhu, Wuyang (1 February 2021). "The fourth case of rabies caused by organ transplantation in China" (in en). Biosafety and Health 3 (1): 8–10. doi:10.1016/j.bsheal.2020.12.001. ISSN 2590-0536. 
  16. ↑ "Rabies Virus Transmission in Solid Organ Transplantation, China, 2015-2016". Emerging Infectious Diseases 23 (9): 1600–1602. September 2017. doi:10.3201/eid2309.161704. PMID 28820377. 
  17. ↑ "China cracks down on rabid dog menace". Toronto Star. 2007-07-23. https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2007/07/23/china_cracks_down_on_rabid_dog_menace.html. 
  18. ↑ Shen, T; Welburn, SC; Sun, L; Yang, GJ (6 April 2023). "Progress towards dog-mediated rabies elimination in PR China: a scoping review.". Infectious Diseases of Poverty 12 (1): 30. doi:10.1186/s40249-023-01082-3. PMID 37024944. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Bali Turns Back to Vaccinations After Culling Fails to Curb Rabies Outbreak , Jakarta Globe, September 21, 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
  20. ↑ Bali suffering rabies epidemic , The Sydney Morning Herald, August 6, 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
  21. ↑ Rabies in Bali, Indonesia , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), March 29, 2010, Retrieved 7 October 2010.
  22. ↑ Rotem, Tsahar. "Negev woman bitten by cat, dies of rabies – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News". Haaretz.com. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=291770&contrassID=2&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y. 
  23. ↑ "מכת כלבת: עשרות נדבקים מדי שנה - כולם בצפון הארץ". 5 March 2017. https://news.walla.co.il/item/3045438. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Yamada, Akio Challenges and risk for rabies free countries Retrieved July 15, 2016
  25. ↑ Inoue, Dr Satoshi http://www.npo-bmsa.org/ewf055.htm No.55 Prevention and risk management of rabies in Japan Retrieved July 15, 2016
  26. ↑ Takahashi-Omoe, Hiromi Regulatory Systems for Prevention and Control of Rabies, Japan Volume 14, Number 9—September 2008 Retrieved July 15, 2016
  27. ↑ Inoue, Dr Satoshi The Rabies Prevention and the Risk Management in Japan Retrieved July 15, 2016
  28. ↑ Rabies still poses a threat December 21, 2006 Japan Times Retrieved July 15, 2016
  29. ↑ Dog-bit Kyoto man who caught rabies in Philippines dies November 18, 2006 Japan Times Retrieved July 15, 2016
  30. ↑ "Rabies Patient Dies in Central Japan City". 15 June 2020. https://www.nippon.com/en/news/yjj2020061500339/. 
  31. ↑ "Archived copy". http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Health_Sciences/English/Centres%20and%20Institutions/Centre_for_Infectious_Diseases/Human_epidemiology_of_rabies_in_South_Africa.pdf. 
  32. ↑ "Rabies in Africa : from its origins to the current fight" (in en-gb). 2014-01-23. https://www.pasteur.fr/en/rabies-africa-its-origins-current-fight. 
  33. ↑ "Rabies in Africa : from its origins to the current fight" (in en-gb). 2014-01-23. https://www.pasteur.fr/en/rabies-africa-its-origins-current-fight. 
  34. ↑ "Idaho State University Library Databases & ILLiad Logon". https://login.libpublic3.library.isu.edu/login?qurl=https://www.uptodate.com%2fcontents%2frabies-immune-globulin-and-vaccine%3fsearch%3dRabies%2520Immune%2520globulin%2520and%2520vaccine%26source%3dsearch_result%26selectedTitle%3d1~150%26usage_type%3ddefault%26display_rank%3d1. 
  35. ↑ "Idaho State University Library Databases & ILLiad Logon". https://login.libpublic3.library.isu.edu/login?qurl=https://www.uptodate.com%2fcontents%2frabies-immune-globulin-and-vaccine%3fsearch%3dRabies%2520Immune%2520globulin%2520and%2520vaccine%26source%3dsearch_result%26selectedTitle%3d1~150%26usage_type%3ddefault%26display_rank%3d1. 
  36. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". https://academic.oup.com/trstmh/article-abstract/92/2/131/1906061?redirectedFrom=fulltext. 
  37. ↑ Ngubane, Nompendulo (2017-06-13). "Dogs stand in line for anti-rabies vaccinations". GroundUp. http://www.groundup.org.za/article/dogs-stand-line-anti-rabies-vaccinations/. 
  38. ↑ "Rabies still kills in South Africa – but it doesn't have to". Bizcommunity.com. 2008-09-23. http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/151/28663.html. 
  39. ↑ "Canadian Cooperation Centre – Research and testing: Rabies in South Africa". Psu-southafrica.org. http://www.psu-southafrica.org/feature-stories/research-and-testing-rabies-in-south-africa.html. 
  40. ↑ "Archived copy". http://www.savc.org.za/pdf_docs/rabies_guide_2011.pdf. 
  41. ↑ "Rabies: Frequently Asked Questions ", National Institute for Communicable Diseases, June 2016
  42. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Rabies. (2017, August 23). Retrieved October 25, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/human_rabies.html
  43. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, July 05). Rabies- Domestic Animals. Retrieved October 23, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/domestic_animals.html
  44. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rabies- Wild Animals. (2017, July 05). Retrieved October 23, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/wild_animals.html
  45. ↑ National Association Of State Public Health Veterinarians, Inc. (Nasphv) (April 2006). "Compendium of animal rabies prevention and control, 2006: National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, Inc. (NASPHV)". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)) 55 (RR-5): 1–8. PMID 16636647. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr5505.pdf. Retrieved 2017-09-08. 
  46. ↑ "Oral Rabies Vaccine Project – Environmental Epidemiology". http://www.vdh.virginia.gov/environmental-epidemiology/rabies-control/oral-rabies-vaccine-project/. 
  47. ↑ "Rabies in translocated raccoons". American Journal of Public Health 69 (6): 601–2. June 1979. doi:10.2105/AJPH.69.6.601. PMID 443502. 
  48. ↑ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (November 2003). "First human death associated with raccoon rabies--Virginia, 2003". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)) 52 (45): 1102–3. PMID 14614408. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm5245.pdf. Retrieved 2017-09-08. 
  49. ↑ "Rabies and Wildlife". The Humane Society of the United States. 2006. http://www.hsus.org/wildlife/urban_wildlife_our_wild_neighbors/rabies__wildlife.html. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 1995". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209 (12): 2031–44. December 1996. doi:10.2460/javma.1996.209.12.2031. PMID 8960176. 
  51. ↑ "Wild Animals". April 6, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/wild_animals.html. 
  52. ↑ "Human Rabies". September 11, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/human_rabies.html. 
  53. ↑ Fox, Maggie (2007-09-07). "Reuters, U.S. free of canine rabies virus". Reuters.com. https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSN0741162020070907. 
  54. ↑ United States Census Bureau. (2016). Retrieved January 10, 2017, from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2016/demo/popest/state-total.html
  55. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, July 05) Rabies in Colorado. Retrieved January 10, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/domestic_animals.html
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Birhane, M. G., Cleaton, J. M., Monroe, B. P., Wadhwa, A., Orciari, L. A., Yager, P., ... & Wallace, R. M. (2017). Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2015. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 250(10), 1117–1130.
  57. ↑ New Mexico Department of Health. Rabies- Activity in New Mexico. (2017, October 17). Retrieved October 23, 2017, from https://nmhealth.org/about/erd/ideb/zdp/rab/
  58. ↑ Arizona Department of Health Services. 2015 Rabies Data. (2016, February 18). Retrieved October 28, 2017, from http://www.azdhs.gov/documents/preparedness/epidemiology-disease-control/rabies/data/2015.pdf
  59. ↑ Utah Department of Health. Utah Department of Health Monthly Rabies Report January–December 2015. (2016). Retrieved October 28, 2017, from http://health.utah.gov/epi/diseases/rabies/surveillance/
  60. ↑ Utah Department of Health. Utah Department of Health Monthly Rabies Report January–December 2016 (2017, September 5). Retrieved October 28, 2017, from http://health.utah.gov/epi/diseases/rabies/surveillance/
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Canada, Public Health Agency of (2018-02-14). "Surveillance of rabies". https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/rabies/surveillance.html. 
  62. ↑ "Aerial vaccine drop remains best defense against rabies". 28 August 2015. https://thefurbearers.com/blog/aerial-vaccine-drop-remains-best-defense-against-rabies/. 
  63. ↑ "Ontario Newsroom". https://news.ontario.ca/en/bulletin/53947/annual-aerial-rabies-bait-drop. 
  64. ↑ "News - WSAVA Global Veterinary Community". https://www.wsava.org/News-Press/News. 
  65. ↑ "Presence/absence of rabies in 2007". World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/rabies/Absence_Presence_Rabies_07_large.jpg. 
  66. ↑ "Self-declaration of country freedom from infection with Rabies virus by Montenegro". World Organisation for Animal Health. 8 September 2022. https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2022/11/2022-09-montenegro-rabies-selfd.pdf. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 "Switzerland ended rabies epidemic by air dropping vaccinated chicken heads from helicopters". 20 November 2019. https://thefactsource.com/switzerland-rabies-epidemic-air-dropping-chicken-heads/. 
  68. ↑ "Rabies(virus) (Infectieziektebestrijding)" (in nl). Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu. 2011-01-03. http://www.rivm.nl/cib/infectieziekten-A-Z/infectieziekten/rabies(virus)/index.jsp. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 69.5 69.6 "Review of human rabies cases in the UK and in Germany". Veterinary Record 157 (22): 715. 26 November 2005. doi:10.1136/vr.157.22.715. PMID 16311386. 
  70. ↑ "Deutschland ist frei von Tollwut" (in de). Germany: Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture. http://www.bmelv.de/SharedDocs/Standardartikel/Landwirtschaft/Tier/Tiergesundheit/SonstigeKrankheiten/TollwutfreiesDeutschland.html. 
  71. ↑ Clancy, Sharon (January–February 2006). "The eradication of rabies". https://www.historyireland.com/the-eradication-of-rabies/. 
  72. ↑ Culliton, Gary (17 July 2009). "Rabies: a new awareness in Ireland". http://www.imt.ie/clinical/infections-immunology/2009/07/rabies-a-new-awareness-in-ireland.html. 
  73. ↑ "Woman dies of rabies after rescuing puppy". BBC News. 10 May 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48226676. 
  74. ↑ "Rabies in Spain: update 19 June 2013". GOV.UK (Press release). Public Health England. 19 June 2013. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  75. ↑ "What is Rabies?". http://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/rabies.html. 
  76. ↑ 25 cases to 2005 (excluding the 2002 European bat lyssavirus 2 case), including a case in Northern Ireland in January 2009
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 "Rabies". Health Protection Agency. http://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&Page&HPAwebAutoListName/Page/1191942176094. 
  78. ↑ "Health Protection Report: News Vol. 2, No. 51". Health Protection Agency. 19 December 2008. http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/news/default.htm#rabies. 
  79. ↑ "Woman with rabies dies in Belfast". RTÉ. 2009-01-07. http://www.rte.ie/news/2009/0107/rabies.html. 
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "Woman treated for rabies in Belfast hospital". RTÉ. 2008-12-15. http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/1215/rabies.html. 
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 "Belfast woman dies of rabies". Irish Examiner. 7 January 2009. http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/health/belfast-woman-dies-of-rabies-81352.html. 
  82. ↑ "Woman with rabies dies at London hospital". BBC News. 2012-05-28. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-18244429. 
  83. ↑ Rabies – Queensland Government Retrieved July 15, 2016
  84. ↑ Attwood, Bronwyn Murdoch Rabies and Australian Bat Lyssavirus January 2007 Retrieved July 15, 2016
  85. ↑ Drewitt, Andy Health experts say Australia must brace for rabies arrival from Indonesia January 3, 2012 The Australian
  86. ↑ "Rabies detected in a Svalbard reindeer". https://www.vetinst.no/en/news/rabies-detected-in-a-svalbard-reindeer. 
  87. ↑ "World Survey of Rabies No.34 1998". https://www.who.int/rabies/resources/en/wsr98_a12.pdf. 



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Medicine:Prevalence_of_rabies&oldid=3269794"