Place:Bali

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Short description: Province and island in Indonesia

Bali

ᬩᬮᬶ
Province
Province of Bali
Official seal of Bali
Seal
Nickname(s): 
Pulau Dewata  (Indonesian)
"Island of gods"
Motto(s): 
Bali Dwipa Jaya  (Balinese)
"Glorious Bali Island"
   Bali in    Indonesia
   Bali in    Indonesia
OpenStreetMap
Coordinates: [ ⚑ ] : 8°20′06″S 115°05′17″E / 8.335°S 115.08806°E / -8.335; 115.08806
Country Indonesia
Established14 August 1958[1]
Capital
and largest city		Denpasar
Government
 • BodyBali Provincial Government
 • Acting GovernorSang Made Mahendra Jaya
 • Vice GovernorVacant
Area
 • Total5,780 km2 (2,230 sq mi)
Area rank36th in Indonesia
Highest elevation
(Mount Agung)
3,031 m (9,944 ft)
Population
 (mid 2022 estimate)[2]
 • Total4,415,100
 • Rank16th in Indonesia
 • Density760/km2 (2,000/sq mi)
Demographics
 • Ethnic groups[3]
  • 90% Balinese
  • 5% Javanese
  • 3% East Indonesians
  • 2% Aga
  • 1% Madurese
  • 3% others
 • Religion[4]
 • Languages[5]
Time zoneUTC+08 (WITA)
GDP (nominal)2022
HDIIncrease 0.771 (5th) – high
Websitebaliprov.go.id

Bali (/ˈbɑːli/; Template:Lang-ban) is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast. The provincial capital, Denpasar,[6] is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar, in Eastern Indonesia. The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar is considered Bali's cultural centre. The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s.[7] Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy.[8]

Bali is the only Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, with 86.9% of the population adhering to Balinese Hinduism.[3] It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali. Other international events that have been held in Bali include Miss World 2013, the 2018 Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group and the 2022 G20 summit. In March 2017, TripAdvisor named Bali as the world's top destination in its Traveller's Choice award, which it also earned in January 2021.[9][10]

Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, especially fish and turtles.[11] In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean.[12] Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[13] It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling a specific geographic area. The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom. The royal houses are not recognised by the government of Indonesia; however, they originated before Dutch colonisation.[14]

History

Ancient

Subak irrigation system

Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from the island of Taiwan to Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia.[15][16] Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines , and Oceania.[16] Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.[17][18]

In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, the Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Vaishnava, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.[19]

Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Shaivism were practised simultaneously. Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204.[20]:129,144,168,180

Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning Walidwipa. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation. Some religious and cultural traditions still practised today can be traced to this period.

The Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86. Mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520.[20]:234,240 Bali's government then became an independent collection of Hindu kingdoms which led to a Balinese national identity and major enhancements in culture, arts, and economy. The nation with various kingdoms became independent for up to 386 years until 1906 when the Dutch subjugated and repulsed the natives for economic control and took it over.[21]

Portuguese contacts

The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores. It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century travelled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition.[22] In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.[23]

Dutch East Indies

Puputan monument

In 1597, the Dutch colonizer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century. Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other.[24] In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms on the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.

In June 1860, the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Bali from Singapore, landing at Buleleng on the north coast of the island. Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory. The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok. It is a boundary between species. In his travel memoir The Malay Archipelago, Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali, which has a strong mention of the unique Balinese irrigation methods:

I was astonished and delighted; as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles (16 or 19 kilometres) inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best-cultivated parts of Europe.[25]

The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide (puputan) to avoid the humiliation of surrender.[24] Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese killed themselves rather than surrender.[26] In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterwards, the Dutch governours exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.

In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here. Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature". Western tourists began to visit the island.[27] The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the West by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary Virgins of Bali about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene "bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies".[28]:134 Under the looser version of the Hays code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving "civilised" (i.e. white) women was banned, but permitted with "uncivilised" (i.e. all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of Virgins of Bali.[28]:133 The film, which mostly consisted of scenes of topless Balinese women was a great success in 1932, and almost single-handedly made Bali into a popular spot for tourists.[28]:135

Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II. It was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather. The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops. There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps Prajoda (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under the command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P. Roodenburg. On 19 February 1942, the Japanese forces landed near the town of Sanoer (Sanur). The island was quickly captured.[29]

During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, I Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers.[30]

Independence from the Dutch

In 1945, Bali was liberated by the British 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender. Once Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year.

In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949.[31] The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province.[32]

Contemporary

2002 Bali bombings memorial

The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc, and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system. Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programmes.[24] A purported coup attempt in Jakarta was averted by forces led by General Suharto.

The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population.[24][27][33] With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.[33]

As a result of the 1965–66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency. His "New Order" government re-established relations with Western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form. The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.[24]

A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship on the island.

On 27 November 2017, Mount Agung erupted five times, causing the evacuation of thousands, disrupting air travel and causing much environmental damage. Further eruptions also occurred between 2018 and 2019.[34]

On 15–16 November 2022, the 2022 G20 Bali summit, the seventeenth meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) was held in Nusa Dua.[35]

Geography

Aerial photograph of Bali
Detailed map of Bali

The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2.0 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (70 mi) north to south; administratively it covers 5,780 km2 (2,230 sq mi), or 5,577 km2 (2,153 sq mi) without Nusa Penida District,[36] which comprises three small islands off the southeast coast of Bali. Its population density was roughly 747 people/km2 (1,930 people/sq mi) in 2020.

Mount Agung is the highest point of Bali.

Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 2,000 metres (6,600 feet) in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur. The highest is Mount Agung (3,031 m (9,944 ft)*), known as the "mother mountain", which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years.[37] In late 2017 Mount Agung started erupting and large numbers of people were evacuated, temporarily closing the island's airport.[38] Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee-producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables, and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km (47 mi) (see List of rivers of Bali).

The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.

The cliff of Nusa Penida with Kelingking beach in the foreground

The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 726,800 (mid 2022).[2] Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 150,000 people in 2020.[39] Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.[40]

Three small islands lie to the immediate south-east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.

To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.

Climate

Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate all year round. Average year-round temperature stands at around 30 °C (86 °F) with a humidity level of about 85%.[41]

Daytime temperatures at low elevations vary between 20 and 33 °C (68 and 91 °F), but the temperatures decrease significantly with increasing elevation.

The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. During the rainy season, there are comparatively fewer tourists seen in Bali. During the Easter and Christmas holidays, the weather is very unpredictable. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas.

Ecology

Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) is found only in Bali and is critically endangered.

Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line,[42] and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok.[43] An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic. Others include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret.

Until the early 20th century, Bali was possibly home to several large mammals: banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger. The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937 when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.[44] Pleistocene and Holocene megafaunas include banteng and giant tapir (based on speculations that they might have reached up to the Wallace Line),[45] and rhinoceros.[46]

Crab-eating macaque monkeys in Uluwatu

Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce kopi luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The crab-eating macaque, known locally as "kera", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three "monkey forest" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur, locally known as "lutung". They occur in a few places apart from the West Bali National Park. They are born an orange colour, though they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration by their first year.[citation needed] In Java, however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and a mixture of black and orange monkeys can be seen together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel.

Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python. The water monitor can grow to at least 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length and 50 kg (110 lb)[47] and can move quickly.

The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.[48]

A team of scientists surveyed from 29 April 2011, to 11 May 2011, at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed.[49] The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem Regency.[50]

Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance, around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach.[51][citation needed]

Environment

Uluwatu
A comparison panorama of the Canggu Shortcut in 2013 vs 2023 which shows the development that South of Bali has been experiencing in the recent years.

Over-exploitation by the tourist industry has led to 200 out of 400 rivers on the island drying up. Research suggests that the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage.[52] To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.[53]

A 2010 Environment Ministry report on its environmental quality index gave Bali a score of 99.65, which was the highest score of Indonesia's 33 provinces. The score considers the level of total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, and chemical oxygen demand in water.[54]

Erosion at Lebih Beach has seen seven metres (23 feet) of land lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.[55]

In 2017, a year when Bali received nearly 5.7 million tourists, government officials declared a "garbage emergency" in response to the covering of 3.6-mile stretch of coastline in plastic waste brought in by the tide, amid concerns that the pollution could dissuade visitors from returning.[56] Indonesia is one of the world's worst plastic polluters, with some estimates suggesting the country is the source of around 10 per cent of the world's plastic waste.

Government

Politics

In the national legislature, Bali is represented by nine members,[57] with a single electoral district covering the whole province.[58] The Bali Regional People's Representative Council, the provincial legislature, has 55 members.[59] The province's politics has historically been dominated by the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which has won by far the most votes in every election in Bali since the first free elections in 1999.[60]

Administrative divisions

The province is divided into eight regencies (kabupaten) and one city (kota). These are, with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census[61] and the 2020 census,[62] together with the official estimates as at mid 2022[2] and the Human Development Index for each regency and city.

Kode
Wilayah		 Name of
City or
Regency		 Capital Area
in
km2		 Pop'n
2000
Census		 Pop'n
2010
Census		 Pop'n
2020
Census		 Pop'n
mid 2022
Estimate		 HDI[63]
2023 estimate
51.71 Denpasar City Denpasar 127.78 532,440 788,589 725,314 726,800 0.847 (Very High)
51.03 Badung Regency Mangupura 418.62 345,863 543,332 548,191 549,500 0.831 (Very High)
51.06 Bangli Regency Bangli 490.71 193,776 215,353 258,721 267,100 0.708 (High)
51.08 Buleleng Regency Singaraja 1,364.73 558,181 624,125 791,813 825,100 0.740 (High)
51.04 Gianyar Regency Gianyar 368.00 393,155 469,777 515,344 524,000 0.792 (High)
51.01 Jembrana Regency Negara 841.80 231,806 261,638 317,064 327,900 0.740 (High)
51.07 Karangasem Regency Amlapura 839.54 360,486 396,487 492,402 511,300 0.689 (Medium)
51.05 Klungkung Regency Semarapura 315.00 155,262 170,543 206,925 214,000 0.731 (High)
51.02 Tabanan Regency Tabanan 1,013.88 376,030 420,913 461,630 469,300 0.774 (High)
Totals 5,780.06 3,146,999 3,890,757 4,317,404 4,415,100 0.771 (High)

Economy

In the 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment.[64] Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions. In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related.[8] By the end of June 2011, the rate of non-performing loans of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan rates (about 5%).[65] The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005. The tourism industry has since recovered from these events.

Agriculture

Wood carving

Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer.[66] Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.

The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes.[67] Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana". According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people, and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication.[68]

Tourism

Number of tourists by nationality
No. Country Tourists
1  Australia 1,225,425
2  China 1,185,764
3  India 371,850
4  United Kingdom 283,539
5  United States 273,317
6  Japan 257,897
7  South Korea 213,324
8  France 206,814
9  Germany 194,773
10  Malaysia 184,477
As of 2019[69]
Kuta Beach is a popular tourist spot.
Several tourist spots in Bali island, from top left to right: Sunset over Amed beach with Mount Agung in the background, Garuda Wisnu Kencana monument, Tanah Lot temple, view from top of Besakih Temple, scuba diving around Pemuteran, The Rock Bar at Jimbaran Bay, and various traditional Balinese people activities
Ogoh-ogoh procession on the eve of Nyepi

In 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno and boosted tourism in Bali. Before the Bali Beach Hotel construction, there were only three significant tourist-class hotels on the island.[70] Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali. Tourism further increased in Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970. The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare.

The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while also significant in the other parts of the island. The prominent tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), Ubud towards the centre of the island, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran and the newer developments of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.

The United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012, because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning.[71][failed verification] Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015, due to new terrorist threats.[72]

An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak, and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the island's south side. Expensive villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic, many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active, and investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.

In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors with improved value for their currencies.

Bali's tourism economy survived the Islamist terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the long-term trend has been a steady increase in visitor arrivals. In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists. The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island still should be able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels,[73] although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.

Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010.[74] Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people. The Balinese culture and its religion are also considered the main factor of the award. One of the most prestigious events that symbolize a strong relationship between a god and its followers is Kecak dance. According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece.[75]

In 2006, Elizabeth Gilbert's memoir Eat, Pray, Love was published, and in August 2010 it was adapted into the film Eat Pray Love. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach in Bali. Both the book and the film fuelled a boom in tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist centre that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance and love through traditional spirituality and healing.[76]

In January 2016, after musician David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals. He had visited and performed in several Southeast Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore.[77]

Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list while India has also emerged as a greater supply of tourists. Chinese tourists increased by 17% in 2011 from 2010 due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.[78] In January 2012, Chinese tourists increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% year on year.[79]

Bali authorities reported the island had 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists.[80]

Based on a Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 per cent of tourists are upper-middle class, spending between $1,286 and $5,592, and are dominated by Australia, India, France, China, Germany and the UK. Some Chinese tourists have increased their levels of spending from previous years. 30.26 per cent of tourists are middle class, spending between $662 and $1,285.[81] In 2017 it was expected that Chinese tourists would outnumber Australian tourists.

In January 2020, 10,000 Chinese tourists cancelled trips to Bali due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[82] Because of the COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions, Bali welcomed 1.07 million international travelers in 2020, most of them between January and March, which is -87% compared to 2019. In the first half of 2021, they welcomed 43 international travelers.[83] The pandemic presented a major blow on Bali's tourism-dependent economy. On 3 February 2022, Bali reopened again for the first foreign tourists after 2 years of being closed due to the pandemic.[84]

In 2022 Indonesia's Minister of Health, Budi Sadikin, stated that the tourism industry in Bali will be complemented by the medical industry.[85]

At the beginning of 2023, the governor of Bali demanded a ban on the use of motorcycles by tourists. This happened after a series of accidents. Wayan Koster proposed to cancel the violators' visas. The move sparked widespread outrage on social media.[86]

Transportation

I Gusti Ngurah Rai International Airport

The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt. Col. Wisnu Airfield is in northwest Bali.

A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching 1,750 m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar. Bali has no railway lines. There is a car ferry between Gilimanuk on the west coast of Bali to Ketapang on Java.

In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million.[87] On 17 July 2011, the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about 400 metres (1,300 feet) away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour. The current pier is only 154 metres (505 feet) but will eventually be extended to 300 to 350 metres (980–1,150 feet) to accommodate international cruise ships. The harbour is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields.[88] The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation was unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.[89]

Trans Sarbagita bus

A memorandum of understanding was signed by two ministers, Bali's governor and Indonesian Train Company to build 565 kilometres (351 miles) of railway along the coast around the island. As of July 2015, no details of these proposed railways have been released.[90][91] In 2019 it was reported in Gapura Bali that Wayan Koster, governor of Bali, "is keen to improve Bali's transportation infrastructure and is considering plans to build an electric rail network across the island".[92]

On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine.[93] Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector.[94] In 2013, The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry advised that 306 cruise liners were scheduled to visit Indonesia, an increase of 43 per cent compared to the previous year.[95]

In May 2011, an integrated Area Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters. It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali.[96][97]

Bali Mandara Toll Road

On 21 December 2011, construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road, which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles. This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of the shares. PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the 9.91-kilometre-long (6.16-mile) toll road (totally 12.7 kilometres (7.89 miles) with access road). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million). The project goes through 2 kilometres (1 mile) of mangrove forest and through 2.3 kilometres (1.4 miles) of beach, both within 5.4 hectares (13 acres) area. The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars that occupied two hectares of mangrove forest. This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road. On 21 December 2011, the Dewa Ruci 450-metre (1,480-foot) underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget.[98][99][100] On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass being opened previously.[101]

To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar, and Tohpati, and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport.[102]

Demographics

Balinese family after performing puja in a temple
Historical population
YearPop.±%
1971 2,120,322—    
1980 2,469,930+16.5%
1990 2,777,811+12.5%
1995 2,895,649+4.2%
2000 3,146,999+8.7%
2005 3,378,092+7.3%
2010 3,890,757+15.2%
2015 4,148,588+6.6%
2020 4,317,404+4.1%
2022 4,415,100+2.3%
sources:[103]

The population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 census, and 4,317,404 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 4,415,100.[104] In 2021, the Indonesian Ministry of Justice estimated that there were 109,801 foreigners living on Bali, with most originating from Russia, the USA, Australia, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, Italy, and the Netherlands.[105]

Ethnic origins

A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al.[106] found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin.

Caste system

Pre-modern Bali had four castes, as Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis state, but with a "very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence".[107] The four castes have been classified as Sudra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satria (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin).[108]

The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that the Balinese caste system had Indian origins, but Helen Creese states that scholars such as Brumund who had visited and stayed on the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the "received understandings concerning its Indian origins".[109] In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelt Soedra) has typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes.[110] In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite meweda (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.[110]

Religion

Religion in Bali (2022)[111]

  Hinduism (91.97%)
  Islam (8.10%)
  Christianity (3.30%)
  Buddhism (0.68%)
  Other (0.02%)

About 91.97% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (8.10%), Christianity (3.30%), and Buddhism (0.68%) as for 2022.[4][111]

The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples.

The general beliefs and practices of Agama Hindu Dharma mix ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of Pancasila.[112][113] Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray.[113] However, officially, the Indonesian government considers and advertises Indonesian Hinduism as a monotheistic religion with certain officially recognised beliefs that comply with its national ideology.[112][113][114] Indonesian school textbooks describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam.[113][115] Scholars[113][116][117] contest whether these Indonesian government recognised and assigned beliefs to reflect the traditional beliefs and practices of Hindus in Indonesia before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule.

Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, which arrived through Java.[118] Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century.[119] Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD. Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century; however, the versions mirror those found in the southeast Indian peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh).[119]

Pura Ulun Danu Bratan

The Bali tradition adopted the pre-existing animistic traditions of the indigenous people. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual. Ritualising states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.[120]

Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism, and find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's odalan. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese. Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.[121] The Roman Catholic community has a diocese, the Diocese of Denpasar that encompasses the province of Bali and West Nusa Tenggara and has its cathedral located in Denpasar.

  • Penataran Lempuyang Temple, Gunung Lempuyang, Bali

  • Saint Joseph's Church, Denpasar

  • Ling Sii Miao Buddhist Temple, Denpasar

  • Ibnu Batutah Mosque, Kuta

Language

Main page: Social:Balinese language

File:WIKITONGUES - Ni Luh speaking Balinese.webm Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia. The Balinese language is heavily stratified due to the Balinese caste system.[122] Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, as Hindu literature was mostly written in Sanskrit.

English and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population. Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists.

Culture

Balinese cuisine
Rejang, a sacred Balinese dance to greet the gods that come down to the earth on ceremony day
Kecak dance
Cremation ceremony in Nusa Penida

Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese cuisine is also distinctive, and unlike the rest of Indonesia, pork is commonly found in Balinese dishes such as Babi Guling. [123] Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong keybar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, and public shows.[124]

Architecture

Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to one's orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.[125][126]

Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance, and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the temple's walls and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.[127]

Dances

Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances that have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances and an older mask that is only used for sacred performances.[128]

Festivals

Throughout the year, there are many festivals celebrated locally or island-wide according to the traditional calendars.[129] The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged (or required) to remain in their hotels. On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of Ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system.

Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context.[125] Many ceremonial art forms such as wayang kulit and topeng are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation.[130] Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with much activity, and the resulting aesthetic, ramé, is distinctively Balinese. Often two or more gamelan ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other to be heard. Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ramé.[131]

Tradition

Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied.[132] Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.[132]

Other than Balinese sacred rituals and festivals, the government presents Bali Arts Festival to showcase Bali's performing arts and various artworks produced by the local talents that they have. It is held once a year, from the second week of June until the end of July. Southeast Asia's biggest annual festival of words and ideas Ubud Writers and Readers Festival is held at Ubud in October, which is participated by the world's most celebrated writers, artists, thinkers, and performers.[133]

One unusual tradition is the naming of children in Bali. In general, Balinese people name their children depending on the order they are born, and the names are the same for both males and females.

Beauty pageant

Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant). It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant. In 2022, Bali also co-hosted Miss Grand International 2022 along with Jakarta, West Java, and Banten.

Sports

Kapten I Wayan Dipta Stadium, the home of Bali United F.C.

Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan.[134]

As part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs, and tropical aquatic life.

Bali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games.[135] It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games.

In 2023, Bali was the location for a major eSports event, the Dota 2 Bali Major, the third and final Major of the Dota Pro Circuit season. The event was held at the Ayana Estate and the Champa Garden, and it was the first time that a Dota Pro Circuit Major was held in Indonesia.[citation needed]

In football, Bali is home to Bali United football club, which plays in Liga 1. The team was relocated from Samarinda, East Kalimantan to Gianyar, Bali. Harbiansyah Hanafiah, the main commissioner of Bali United explained that he changed the name and moved the home base because there was no representative from Bali in the highest football tier in Indonesia.[136] Another reason was due to local fans in Samarinda preferring to support Pusamania Borneo F.C. rather than Persisam.

Heritage sites

In June 2012, Subak, the irrigation system for paddy fields in Jatiluwih, central Bali was listed as a Natural UNESCO World Heritage Site.[137]

See also

  • Culture of Indonesia
  • Hinduism in Indonesia
  • Tourism in Indonesia

References

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  86. ↑ "This potential Bali bike ban is revving up locals and tourists alike". 2023-03-14. https://www.delicious.com.au/travel/travel-news/article/indonesian-governor-proposes-ban-bikes-bali/uhgmoc3u. 
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  88. ↑ "Tanah Ampo prepares to welcome first cruise ship". The Jakarta Post. 11 July 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/07/11/tanah-ampo-prepares-welcome-first-cruise-ship.html. 
  89. ↑ "Tender for Tanah Ampo set for next month". The Jakarta Post. 4 July 2013. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/07/04/tender-tanah-ampo-set-next-month.html. 
  90. ↑ What? Train? Bali? goodnewsfromindonesia.org (5 January 2011).
  91. ↑ "My Bali Guide | Your Ultimate Connection With Bali". https://www.mybaliguide.com/. 
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  93. ↑ ""Best Port Welcome" Awarded to Bali's Benoa Port". KOMPAS.com. 16 March 2011. http://english.kompas.com/read/2011/03/21/15463549/.Best.Port.Welcome.Awarded.to.Balis.Benoa.Port. 
  94. ↑ "Government mulls plan to expand Benoa". The Jakarta Post. 20 June 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/20/government-mulls-plan-expand-benoa.html. 
  95. ↑ Jakarta Post (25 January 2013) Cruise ship fever hits Bali
  96. ↑ Dhae, Arnold (12 May 2011). "Pemprov Bali Gunakan Teknologi Baru Atasi Kemacetan". Media Indonesia. http://komisikepolisianindonesia.com/kasus/read/3013/pemprov-bali-gunakan-teknologi-baru-atasi-kemacetan.html. 
  97. ↑ "New traffic control system, buses hoped to ease congestion". The Jakarta Post. 25 May 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/05/25/new-traffic-control-system-buses-hoped-ease-congestion.html. 
  98. ↑ "New toll road to ease congestion, increase tourists". The Jakarta Post. 5 September 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/09/05/new-toll-road-ease-congestion-increase-tourists.html. 
  99. ↑ "Tol di Atas Laut Mulai Dikonstruksi". indopos.co.id. http://www.indopos.co.id/index.php/arsip-berita-nasional/75-nasional-reviews/15994-tol-di-atas-laut-mulai-dikonstruksi.html. 
  100. ↑ "Bali starts construction on crucial toll road, underpass". The Jakarta Post. 22 December 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/12/22/bali-starts-construction-crucial-toll-road-underpass.html. 
  101. ↑ "President officially opens Bali toll road". 23 September 2013. http://www.antara.co.id/en/news/90837/president-officially-opens-bali-toll-road. 
  102. ↑ "Toll road to cost island 2 hectares of mangrove". The Jakarta Post. 7 February 2011. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/02/07/toll-road-cost-island-2-hectares-mangrove.html. 
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  109. ↑ Helen M. Creese (2016). Bali in the Early Nineteenth Century. BRILL Academic. pp. 305 with footnotes. ISBN 978-90-04-31583-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=tQpRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305. 
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 Jane Belo (1953), Bali: Temple Festival, Monograph 22, American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, pages 4–5
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  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 McDaniel, June (2010). "Agama Hindu Dharma Indonesia as a New Religious Movement: Hinduism Recreated in the Image of Islam". Nova Religio 14 (1): 93–111. doi:10.1525/nr.2010.14.1.93. 
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  114. ↑ Michel Picard (2003), in Hinduism in Modern Indonesia (Editor: Martin Ramstedt), Routledge, ISBN:978-0700715336, pp. 56–72
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  118. ↑ Becker, J. (1981). "Hindu-Buddhist Time in Javanese Gamelan Music". The Study of Time IV. Springer. pp. 161–172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5947-3_13. ISBN 978-1-4612-5949-7. 
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions, p. 1, at Google Books, pp. 1–54
  120. ↑ Slattum, J. (2003) Balinese Masks: Spirits of an Ancient Drama. Indonesia, Asia Pacific, Japan, North America, Latin America, and Europe Periplus Editions (H) Ltd
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  122. ↑ I Wayan Arka (2005). "Speech Levels, Social Predicates and Pragmatic Structure in Balinese: A Lexical Approach". Pragmatics 15 (2–3): 169–203. doi:10.1075/prag.15.2-3.02ark. 
  123. ↑ "Where to eat what Anthony Bourdain called 'the best pig I have ever had'" (in en). 2023-04-16. https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/food-drink/article/3217030/anthony-bourdain-loved-it-where-eat-best-spit-roasted-pork-bali-and-why-chef-called-it-best-pig-i. 
  124. ↑ Emigh, John (1996). Masked Performance: The Play of Self and Other in Ritual and Theatre. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1336-X.  The author is a Western theatre professor who has become a performer in Balinese topeng theatre himself.
  125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 Herbst, Edward (1997). Voices in Bali: Energes and Perceptions in Vocal Music and Dance Theater. Hanover: University Press of New England. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-8195-6316-1. https://archive.org/details/voicesbalienergi00herb. 
  126. ↑ Gold, p. 19.
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  128. ↑ Sanger, Annette (1988). "Blessing or Blight? The Effects of Touristic Dance-Drama on village Life in Singapadu, Bali". Come Mek Me Hol' Yu Han': The Impact of Tourism on Traditional Music (Berlin: Jamaica Memory Bank): 89–104 (90–93). 
  129. ↑ Rough Guide to Bali & Lombok. Rough Guides. 2011. ISBN 978-1-4053-8135-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=FaTTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25. 
  130. ↑ Foley, Kathy; Sedana, I Nyoman; Sedana, I Nyoman (Autumn 2005). "Mask Dance from the Perspective of a Master Artist: I Ketut Kodi on "Topeng"". Asian Theatre Journal (University of Hawai'i Press) 22 (2): 199–213 (208). doi:10.1353/atj.2005.0031. 
  131. ↑ Gold, p. 8.
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  133. ↑ "What to expect at Southeast Asia's biggest festival of words and ideas". Asian Correspondent. https://asiancorrespondent.com/2018/10/ubud-writers-readers-festival-2018-what-to-expect/. 
  134. ↑ "About Bali + Lombok". magicseaweed.com. http://magicseaweed.com/Bali-Lombok-Surf-Forecast/55/. .
  135. ↑ "Olympic Council of Asia : Games". ocasia.org. http://ocasia.org/Game/GameParticular.aspx?VKZk7uGbk/Bst5Hhk+WoCw==. 
  136. ↑ "Putra Samarinda Berubah Jadi Bali United Pusam". http://www.tribunnews.com/superball/2014/12/17/putra-samarinda-berubah-jadi-bali-united-pusam. 
  137. ↑ "Cultural Landscape of Bali Province". UNESCO. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194. 

Bibliography

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