Social:Cultural genocide of Uyghurs

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User:RMCD bot/subject notice Critics of China 's treatment of Uyghurs have accused the Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy an ethnocide or a cultural genocide of Uyghurs.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] In particular, they have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored re-education camps,[9][10] suppression of Uyghur religious practices[11][12] and testimonials of alleged human rights abuses including forced sterilization and contraception.[13][9][14]


Background

Xinjiang conflict

Various Chinese dynasties have historically exerted control over parts of modern-day Xinjiang.[15] The region came under modern Chinese rule as a result of the westward expansion of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which also saw the conquests of Tibet and Mongolia.[16]

After the 1928 assassination of Yang Zengxin, the governor of the semi-autonomous Kumul Khanate in east Xinjiang under the Republic of China, Jin Shuren, succeeded Yang as the governor of the Khanate. On the death of the Kamul Khan Maqsud Shah in 1930, Jin entirely abolished the Khanate and took control of the region as warlord.[17] In 1933, the breakaway First East Turkestan Republic was established in the Kumul Rebellion.[18] In 1934, the First Turkestan Republic was conquered by warlord Sheng Shicai with the aid of the Soviet Union before Sheng reconciled with the Republic of China in 1942.[19] In 1944, the Ili Rebellion led to the Second East Turkestan Republic with dependency on the Soviet Union for trade, arms, and "tacit consent" for its continued existence before being absorbed into the People's Republic of China in 1949.[20]

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Chinese government sponsored a mass migration of Han Chinese to the region and introduced a number of policies to suppress the cultural identity and religion of Uyghurs.[21] During this time, several Uyghur separatist organizations with potential support from the Soviet Union emerged, with the East Turkestan People's Party being the largest in 1968.[22] During the 1970s, the Soviets supported the United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET) to fight the Chinese.[23]

In 1997, a police roundup and execution of 30 suspected separatists during Ramadan led to large demonstrations in February 1997 that resulted in the Ghulja incident, a People's Liberation Army (PLA) crackdown that led to at least nine deaths.[24] The Ürümqi bus bombings later that month killed nine people and injured 68 with responsibility acknowledged by Uyghur exile groups.[25] In March 1997, a bus bomb killed two people with responsibility claimed by Uyghur separatists and the Turkey-based Organisation for East Turkistan Freedom.[26]

In July 2009, riots broke out in Xinjiang in response to a violent dispute between Uyghur and Han Chinese workers in a factory that resulted in over one hundred deaths.[27] Following the riots, Uyghur terrorists killed dozens of Han Chinese in coordinated attacks from 2009 to 2016.[28][29] These included the August 2009 syringe attacks,[30] the 2011 bomb-and-knife attack in Hotan,[31] the March 2014 knife attack in the Kunming railway station,[32] the April 2014 bomb-and-knife attack in the Ürümqi railway station,[33] and the May 2014 car-and-bomb attack in an Ürümqi street market.[34] The attacks were conducted by Uyghur separatists, with some orchestrated by the UN-designated terrorist organization[35] Turkistan Islamic Party (formerly the East Turkistan Islamic Movement).[36][37][38][39]

Government policies

Xinjiang Police Jobs as they grow with Internment Camps
Graph of number of re-education related government procurement bids in Xinjiang
Number of re-education related government procurement bids in Xinjiang

Initial "Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Terrorism"

In April 2010, after the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, Zhang Chunxian replaced the former Communist Party chief Wang Lequan, who had been behind religious policies in Xinjiang for 14 years.[40] In May 2014, China launched the "Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism" in Xinjiang in response to growing tensions between Han Chinese and the Uyghur population of Xinjiang itself.[41] In announcing the campaign, Chinese leader Xi Jinping stated that "practice has proved that our party's ruling strategy in Xinjiang is correct and must be maintained in the long run" in May 2014.[42]

Regulations since 2017

New bans and regulations were implemented on 1 April 2017. Abnormally long beards and wearing veils in public were both banned.[43] Not watching state-run television or listening to radio broadcasts, refusing to abide by family planning policies, or refusing to allow one's children to attend state run schools were all prohibited.[43] Giving a child a name that would "exaggerate religious fervor," such as Muhammad, was made illegal. Along with this, many mosques were demolished or destroyed.[43]

Re-education efforts began in 2014 and were expanded in 2017.[44][45] At this time, detainment camps were built for the housing of students of the re-education programs, most of whom are Uyghurs. The Chinese government did not acknowledge their existence until 2018 and called them "vocational education and training centers."[44] This name was changed to "vocational training centers" in 2019. The camps tripled in size from 2018 to 2019 despite the Chinese government claiming that most of the detainees had been released.[44]

Counter-terrorism justification

China has used the global "war on terror" of the 2000s to frame separatist and ethnic unrest as acts of Islamist terrorism to legitimize its counter-insurgency policies in Xinjiang.[46]

In August 2018, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination decried the "broad definition of terrorism and vague references to extremism" used by Chinese legislation, noting that there were numerous reports of detention of large numbers of ethnic Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities on the "pretext of countering terrorism".[47]

In 2019, the editorial board of The Wall Street Journal , Sam Brownback, and Nathan Sales said that the Chinese government consistently misuses "counterterrorism" as a pretext for cultural suppression and human rights abuses.[48][49]

Cultural effects

Mosques

Mosque in Tuyoq, Xinjiang

In 2005, Human Rights Watch reported that "information scattered in official sources suggests that retaliation" against mosques not sponsored by the Chinese State was prevalent, and that the Xinjiang Party Secretary expressed that Uyghurs "should not have to build new places for religious activities."[50] The Chinese government prohibited minors from participating in religious activities in Xinjiang in a manner that, according to Human Rights Watch, "has no basis in Chinese law."[50]

According to an analysis from The Guardian, over one-third of mosques and religious sites in China suffered “significant structural damage” between 2016 and 2018, with nearly one-sixth of all mosques and shrines completely razed.[51] This includes the tomb of Imam Asim, a mud tomb in the Taklamakan desert. According to The Guardian, Uyghur Muslims believe that repeated pilgrimages to the tomb would fulfill a Muslim's obligation to complete the Hajj.[51]

According to The Guardian , a reporter who visited the eastern region of Qumul in 2017 learned from local officials that over 200 of the 800 mosques in the region were destroyed and over 500 more were scheduled for demolition in 2018.[52]

A 2019 CNN report suggested that dozens of mosques have been destroyed in China's crackdown.[53]

Education

In 2011, schools in Xinjiang transitioned to "bilingual education." The majority of the instruction occurs in Mandarin Chinese, with only a few hours a week devoted to Uyghur literature. Despite this emphasis on "bilingual education," few Han children are taught to speak Uyghur.[54]

Uyghur students are also increasingly being sent to residential schools far from their home communities where they are able to speak Uyghur.[55]

According to a 2020 report from Radio Free Asia, monolingual Mandarin Chinese education has been introduced in an influential high school in Kashgar which formerly provided bilingual education.[56]

Detained academics and religious figures

The Uyghur Human Rights Project has identified at least 386 Uyghur intellectuals that were detained and has disappeared since early 2017 as victims of the massive campaign of ethno-religious repression carried out by the Chinese government in the Uyghur homeland.[57]

Uyghur economist Ilham Tohti was sentenced to life in prison in 2014. Amnesty International called his sentence unjustified and deplorable.[58] Rahile Dawut, a prominent Uyghur anthropologist who studied and preserved Islamic shrines, traditional songs and folklore, has also been imprisoned.[59]

According to Radio Free Asia, the Chinese government jailed Uyghur Imam Abduheber Ahmet after he took his son to a religious school not sanctioned by the Chinese state. Ahmet had previously been lauded by China as a "five-star" imam, but was sentenced in 2018 to over five years in prison for his action.[60]

Graveyards

In September 2019, Agence France-Presse (AFP) visited 13 destroyed cemeteries across four cities and witnessed exposed bones still remaining in 4 of them. Through examination of satellite images, the press agency determined that the grave destruction campaign had been active for more than a decade.[61] According to a previous AFP report, three cemeteries in Xayar County were among dozens of Uyghur cemeteries destroyed in Xinjiang between 2017 and 2019. The unearthed human bones from the cemeteries in Xayar County were discarded.[62][63] In January 2020, a CNN report based on analysis of Google Maps satellite imagery said that Chinese authorities have destroyed more than 100 graveyards in Xinjiang, primarily Uyghur ones. CNN has linked the destruction of the cemeteries to the governments campaign to control the Uyghurs and Muslims more broadly. The Chinese government terms the cemetery and tomb destruction as "relocations" and claim that the dead are re-interred in new standardized cemeteries.[64][65]

This is all part of China's campaign to effectively eradicate any evidence of who we are, to effectively make us like the Han Chinese. ... That's why they're destroying all of these historical sites, these cemeteries, to disconnect us from our history, from our fathers and our ancestors.
—Salih Hudayar, whose great-grandparents' graveyard was demolished[62][63]

Radio Free Asia reported that Sultanim Cemetery, the central Uyghur graveyard and a sacred shrine in Hotan city, was demolished and converted into a parking lot between 2018 and 2019.[66]

CGTN, a Chinese state-owned international channel affiliated with the Communist Party of China, claimed that the report on grave disappearances in Xinjiang are a myth perpetrated by CNN and other Western media outlets.[67]

Marriage incentives

Uyghur Woman in Xinjiang

According to the outreach coordinator for the U.S.-based Uyghur Human Rights Project,[68] Zubayra Shamseden, the Chinese government "wants to erase Uighur culture and identity by remaking its women."[69]

According to gender studies expert Leta Hong Fincher, the Chinese government has offered Uyghur couples incentives to have fewer children, and for women to marry outside of their race.[70]

Marriages between Uyghurs and Han Chinese persons are encouraged with subsidies by the government. In October 2017, the marriage of a Han Chinese man from Henan Province to a Uyghur woman from Lop County was celebrated on the county's social media page:

“They will let ethnic unity forever bloom in their hearts,”
“Let ethnic unity become one’s own flesh and blood.”[71]

Clothing

Chinese authorities discourage the wearing of headscarves, veils, and other Islamic dress in the region. On May 20, 2014, a protest broke out in Alakaga (Alaqagha, Alahage), Kuqa (Kuchar, Kuche), Aksu Prefecture when 25 women and schoolgirls were detained for wearing headscarves. According to a local official, two died and five were injured when special armed police fired into the protesters. Subsequently, a Washington Post team was detained in Alakaga and ultimately deported from the region.[72][73][74][72][75]

Children's names

According to Radio Free Asia, in 2015, a list of banned names for children called "Naming Rules For Ethnic Minorities", was promulgated in Hotan, banning potential names including Islam, Quran, Mecca, Jihad, Imam, Saddam, Hajj, and Medina. Use of list was later extended throughout Xinjiang.[76]

Allegations of human rights abuses

Inside internment camps

Main page: Religion:Xinjiang re-education camps

Torture

Human Rights Watch, a New York-based nonprofit organisation, has alleged "'rampant abuses,' including torture and unfair trials" of the Uyghurs.[77]

Mihrigul Tursun, a young Uyghur mother, said that she was "tortured and subjected to other brutal conditions... " She was drugged, interrogated for days without sleep, and strapped in a chair and jolted with electricity. It was her third time being sent to a camp since 2015. Tursun told reporters that she remembers interrogators telling her: "Being a Uighur is a crime."[78] Another past detainee, Kayrat Samarkand, said that "'They made me wear what they called 'iron clothes,' a suit made of metal that weighed over 50 pounds... It forced my arms and legs into an outstretched position. I couldn't move at all, and my back was in terrible pain...They made people wear this thing to break their spirits. After 12 hours, I became so soft, quiet and lawful.'"[79]

Compulsory sterilizations and contraception

Zumrat Dwut, a Uyghur woman, claimed that she was forcibly sterilized during her time in a camp before her husband was able to get her out through requests to Pakistani diplomats.[80] While Dwut does not specify how she was sterilized, other women recount having forcefully received contraceptive implants.[81][82][83]

The Heritage Foundation reported that officials forced Uyghur women to take unknown drugs and drink some kind of white liquid that caused them to lose consciousness and sometimes caused them to stop menstruating.[13]

Brainwashing

Kayrat Samarkand described his camp routine in an article for NPR: "In addition to living in cramped quarters, he says inmates had to sing songs praising Chinese leader Xi Jinping before being allowed to eat. He says detainees were forced to memorize a list of what he calls '126 lies' about religion: 'Religion is opium, religion is bad, you must believe in no religion, you must believe in the Communist Party,' he remembers. 'Only [the] Communist Party could lead you to the bright future.'"[79]

Documents which were leaked to The New York Times by an anonymous Chinese official advised that "Should students ask whether their missing parents had committed a crime, they are to be told no, it is just that their thinking has been infected by unhealthy thoughts. Freedom is only possible when this 'virus' in their thinking is eradicated and they are in good health."[84]

The Heritage Foundation reported that "children whose parents are detained in the camps are often sent to state-run orphanages and brainwashed to forget their ethnic roots. Even if their parents are not detained, Uyghur children need to move to inner China and immerse themselves into Han culture under the Chinese government's 'Xinjiang classrooms' policy."[13]

Labor

According to Quartz, the Xinjiang region is described as a "'cotton gulag' where prison labor is present in all steps of the cotton supply chain..."[85]

Tahir Hamut, a Uyghur Muslim, worked in a labor camp during elementary school when he was a child, and he later worked in a re-education camp as an adult, performing such tasks as picking cotton, shoveling gravel, and making bricks. "Everyone is forced to do all types of hard labor or face punishment," he said. "Anyone unable to complete their duties will be beaten."[86]

Organ harvesting

Ethan Gutmann, a journalist and China watcher, concluded that organ harvesting from prisoners of conscience became prevalent when members of the Uyghur ethnic group were targeted in security crackdowns and "strike hard campaigns" during the 1990s. Organ harvesting from Uyghur prisoners dropped off by 1999 with members of the Falun Gong religious group overtaking the Uyghurs as a source or organs.[87][88][89] In the 2010s, concerns about organ harvesting from Uyghurs resurfaced.[90][91]

Outside internment camps

Forced cohabitation and abortion

In 2018, Chinese public servants began mandatory home stays with Uyghur families for assimilation aid.[53]

A 37-year-old pregnant woman from the Xinjiang region said that she attempted to give up her Chinese citizenship in order to live in Kazakhstan but was told by the Chinese government that she needed to come back to China in order to complete the process. She received an abortion that she alleged was required to prevent her brother from being detained.[92]

Use of biometric and surveillance technology

Chinese authorities have been utilizing biometric technology to track individuals in the Uyghur community.[53] According to Yahir Imin, a 38-year-old Uyghur, Chinese authorities in Xinjiang drew blood, scanned his face, recorded his fingerprints, and documented his voice.[53] As stated in the article written by Sui-Lee Wee, a key piece in China's strategy is to collect genetic material from millions of people in the Xinjiang region. The genetic material contributes to an extensive database that can track Uyghur individuals who defy the campaign. China has been exploring the use of facial recognition technology to sort people by ethnicity and how to use DNA to tell if an individual is a Uyghur. According to an assistant professor at the University of Windsor in Ontario, Mark Munsterhjelm, The PRC is creating "technologies used for hunting people."[93]

In 2017, security-related construction tripled in Xinjiang. According to Charles Rollet, “the projects [in China] include not only security cameras but also video analytics hubs, intelligent monitoring systems, big data centers, police checkpoints, and even drones."[94] The Ministry of Public Security has invested billions of dollars into two main government plans: the Skynet project (天网工程) and the Sharp Eyes project (雪亮工程).[94] These two projects combined are reaching to oversee China's population by the year 2020 through video camera facial recognition. According to Morgan Stanley, by 2020, there will be installments of 400 million security cameras.[94] Various Chinese start-ups have been building algorithms to allow the Chinese government to track the Muslim minority group. These start-ups include SenseTime, CloudWalk, Yitu, Megvii, and Hikvision.[95]

Biometric data

Officials in Tumxuk have gathered hundreds of blood samples from Uyghur individuals, contributing to the campaign in mass-collecting DNA.[93] Tumxuk was named a "major battlefield for Xinjiang's security work" by the state news media.[93] In January 2018, a forensic DNA lab overseen by the Institute of Forensic Science of China was built in Tumxuk.[93] Documents from within the lab showed that the lab was supported by software created by Thermo Fisher Scientific, a Massachusetts company.[93] This software was used in correspondence to create genetic sequencers, helpful in analyzing DNA. In response, Thermo Fisher declared in February that it would discontinue selling to the Xinjiang region as a result of "fact-specific assessments."[93]

GPS tracking on cars

Security officials have ordered residents in China's Northwest region to install GPS tracking devices in their vehicles so authorities can track their movements. This measure affects residents in the Xinjiang region and authorities have claimed that it "is necessary in order to counteract the activities of Islamist extremists and separatists". An announcement from officials in Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture proclaimed that "there is a severe threat from international terrorism, and cars have been used as a key means of transport for terrorists as well as constantly serving as weapons. It is therefore necessary to monitor and track all vehicles in the prefecture."[96]

Installation of China-made Beidou satellite navigation systems in all private, secondhand, and government vehicles was made necessary from 20 February 2020.[96]

International responses

Labeling the Chinese government's policy in Xinjiang an "ethnocide" or a "cultural genocide"

Since the release of the Xinjiang papers and the China Cables in November 2019, various journalists and researchers have called the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs an ethnocide or a cultural genocide. In November 2019, Adrian Zenz described the classified documents as confirming "that this is a form of cultural genocide".[97] Azeem Ibrahim of Foreign Policy called the Chinese treatment of Uyghurs a "deliberate and calculated campaign of cultural genocide" in December 2019 after the release of the Xinjiang papers and China Cables.[98] James Liebold, a professor at the Australian La Trobe University, has called the treatment of Uyghurs by the Chinese government a "cultural genocide" and stated that "in their own words, party officials are 'washing brains' and 'cleansing hearts' in order to 'cure' those bewitched by extremist thoughts."[99]

International Criminal Court complaint

In July 2020, Uyghur activist groups filed a complaint with the International Criminal Court calling for it to investigate PRC officials for crimes against Uyghurs including allegations of genocide.[100][101]

Official visits to the camps

Several official visits have been made the camps at the request of the UN and other countries.[102] A 2019 Russian UN anti-terrorism investigator found nothing incriminating at the sites.[103] The U.S. has called these visits "highly choreographed" and characterized them as having "propagated false narratives."[104] The UN visit prompted anger from some members of the Uyghur community.[105]

Diplomatic reactions

United Nations

According to Human Rights Watch News, twenty-two countries issued a combined statement that called upon China to end its mass violations against the Uyghur community in the Xinjiang autonomous region in China's Northwest.[106] John Fisher, Geneva director at Human Rights Watch stated "the joint statement is important not only for Xinjiang's population, but for people around the world who depend on the UN's leading rights body to hold even the most powerful countries to account."[106] In the joint statement, countries stated their concerns regarding the surveillance, detention, and other ethical violations against the Uyghur and Muslim community in Xinjiang. Countries that have contributed to this statement include: Australia , Austria, Belgium, Canada , Denmark , Estonia, Finland , France , Germany , Iceland, Ireland, Japan , Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway , Spain , Sweden, Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .[106]

Europe

In addition to signing a joint statement regarding ethical violations affecting the Uyghur community in Xinjiang, countries such as Germany and Norway have taken further steps to express their opinions on this issue. Germany has specifically called on China to provide UN human rights access to the camps.[107] In addition, Norway has formed an anti-internment camp awareness group.[108]

Middle East

Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, and many others all signed a UN document defending China's human rights record.[109][110] A spokesperson for the Turkish Foreign Ministry criticized the camps,[111] but Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan later defended China during his visit there.[112] Iraq and Iran have also remained silent[113] while Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Turkey have been accused of deporting Uyghurs to China.[114][115][116][117][118] The United Arab Emirates has formally defended China's human rights records.[119] Qatar supported China's policies in Xinjiang until August 21, 2019; Qatar was the first Middle Eastern country to withdraw their defense of the Xinjiang Camps.[120][121][122]

Central Africa

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Nigeria, Somalia, and many other central African countries have defended China.[109]

Southeast Asia

Cambodia, Myanmar, and The Philippines signed formal support of China's policies.[109] Thailand, Malaysia, and Cambodia have all deported Uyghur people on China's request.[123]

In December 2009, the Uyghur American Association expressed concern at the return of 20 Uyghur refugees from Cambodia to China.[124]

New Zealand

The prime minister of New Zealand, Jacinda Ardern, visited Beijing after Christchurch mosque shootings and discussed Xinjiang privately with Xi Jinping. Nothing resulted from such conversations and Ardern did pursue this topic further. The New York Times thought that the seeming lack of concern was because New Zealand exports many products to China, including milk, meat, and wine.[125]

Russia

Russia has expressed support of the Uyghur camps on multiple occasions.[126] They were among the 37 nations to formally declare their support of the Xinjiang camps in China in a letter to the UN.[127][128]

United States

The United States Congress passed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act in reaction to the re-education camps.[129][130] The Uyghur American Association has claimed that Beijing's military approach to terrorism in Xinjiang is state terrorism.[131] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has issued statements[132][133][134] about the conditions in Xinjiang writing in part:

The Chinese government’s campaign against the Uyghurs in Xinjiang is multi-faceted and systematic. It is characterized by mass detention, forced labor, and discriminatory laws, and supported through high-tech manners of surveillance.[135]

References

  1. ↑ ""'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" - The Independent, 5 July 2019". https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html. 
  2. ↑ ""'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs" - The Times 17 December 2019". https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89. 
  3. ↑ ""China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'" - 28 November 2019". https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html. 
  4. ↑ ""Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture" - Financial Times 12 September 2019". https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77. 
  5. ↑ ""The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction" November 2019". https://www.mdpi.com/2075-471X/9/1/1. 
  6. ↑ ""China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide" - Summer 2019". https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC. 
  7. ↑ ""Cultural Genocide in International Law: An Assessment" - 2019". http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1353009/FULLTEXT01.pdf. 
  8. ↑ "Uighur Insurgency / Uighur Genocide". https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/uighur.htm. "To put it another way, in round numbers, essentially all breeding age men have been physically separated from wives and potential breeding partners. This policy, if sustained over a period of years, would produce a "birth dearth" that would eliminate the Uyghurs as a people, in the absence of young people to carry on their cultural traditions. This is genocide, with Chinese Characteristics." 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Danilova, Maria (2018-11-27). "Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp". https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe. 
  10. ↑ Stewart, Phil (2019-05-04). "China putting minority Muslims in 'concentration camps,' U.S. says" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K. 
  11. ↑ Congressional Research Service (18 June 2019). "Uyghurs in China". Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf. 
  12. ↑ Blackwell, Tom (25 September 2019). "Canadian went to China to debunk reports of anti-Muslim repression, but was 'shocked' by treatment of Uyghurs" (in en-CA). https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Enos, Olivia; Kim, Yujin (29 August 2019). "China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide". https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide. 
  14. ↑ "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2020-06-29. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713. 
  15. ↑ Clarke, Michael E. (8 March 2011). Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia – A History. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-136-82706-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA16. 
  16. ↑ Millward, James (7 February 2019). "'Reeducating' Xinjiang's Muslims" (in en). The New York Review of Books. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/02/07/reeducating-xinjiangs-muslims/. Retrieved 30 January 2019. 
  17. ↑ Forbes, Andrew D. (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 W. (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5212-5514-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 10 March 2014. 
  18. ↑ Dillon, Michael (2014). Xinjiang and the Expansion of Chinese Communist Power: Kashgar in the Early Twentieth Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-64721-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=J2MtBAAAQBAJ. 
  19. ↑ Starr, S. Frederick, ed (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA243. Retrieved 10 March 2014. 
  20. ↑ Benson, Linda (1990). The Ili Rebellion: the Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949. M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-87332-509-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC. 
  21. ↑ "Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang" (in en). Human Rights Watch 17 (2): Post 9/11: labeling Uighurs terrorists, p. 16. April 2005. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/china0405/china0405.pdf. Retrieved 9 June 2018. 
  22. ↑ Clarke, Michael E. (2011). Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History. Taylor & Francis. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-1368-2706-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC. Retrieved 10 March 2014. 
  23. ↑ Reed, J. Todd; Raschke, Diana (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. ABC-CLIO. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-3133-6540-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC. Retrieved 10 March 2014. 
  24. ↑ "China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang". October 2001. https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm. 
  25. ↑ Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-2311-3924-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA104. Retrieved 10 March 2014. 
  26. ↑ Debata, Mahesh Ranjan (2007). China's Minorities: Ethnic-religious Separatism in Xinjiang. Pentagon Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-81-8274-325-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xe8CUZ0_r4C&pg=PA170. 
  27. ↑ Branigan, Tania; Watts, Jonathan (5 July 2009). "Muslim Uighurs riot as ethnic tensions rise in China". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/05/china-uighur-riots-xianjing. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  28. ↑ "Wary Of Unrest Among Uighur Minority, China Locks Down Xinjiang Region". NPR. 26 September 2017. https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/09/26/553463964/wary-of-unrest-among-uighur-minority-china-locks-down-xinjiang-province. "In the years that followed, Uighur terrorists killed dozens of Han Chinese in brutal, coordinated attacks at train stations and government offices. A few Uighurs have joined ISIS, and Chinese authorities are worried about more attacks on Chinese soil." 
  29. ↑ Kennedy, Lindsey; Paul, Nathan. "China created a new terrorist threat by repressing this ethnic minority". https://qz.com/993601/china-uyghur-terrorism/. 
  30. ↑ "Chinese break up 'needle' riots". BBC Online. 4 September 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8237259.stm. Retrieved 4 September 2009. 
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  35. ↑ "Governance Asia-Pacific Watch". United Nations. April 2007. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan025885.htm. Retrieved 23 August 2007. 
  36. ↑ Morin, Adrien (23 February 2017). "Is China's Counterterrorism Policy in Xinjiang Working?". The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/is-chinas-counterterrorism-policy-in-xinjiang-working/. Retrieved 3 February 2020. "according to Kyrgyzstan state security, the attack was ordered by Uyghur militants active in Syria and carried out by a member of ETIM." 
  37. ↑ Karen, Leigh (9 October 2019). "The Uighurs". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/the-uighurs/2019/10/09/dd0c4be2-ea71-11e9-a329-7378fbfa1b63_story.html. Retrieved 2 February 2020. "Tensions erupted in 2009... Attacks by Uighur separatists intensified in the years that followed, with one of the groups that carried them out—the Turkistan Islamic Party—also being credited with having thousands of jihadist fighters in Syria." 
  38. ↑ Zenn, Jacob (2018). "The Turkistan Islamic Party in Double-Exile: Geographic and Organizational Divisions in Uighur Jihadis". Terrorism Monitor 16 (17). https://jamestown.org/program/the-turkistan-islamic-party-in-double-exile-geographic-and-organizational-divisions-in-uighur-jihadism/. Retrieved 3 February 2020. "The TIP also claimed several other attacks in China after 2008... the 2011 hit-and-run attack in Kashgar was credibly proven to be organized by the TIP in Afghanistan". 
  39. ↑ Clarke, Colin P. (26 August 2019). "China's Global War on Terrorism". Slate. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/08/china-terrorism-xinjiang-repression-islam.html. Retrieved 3 February 2020. "Over the past decade, groups advocating separatism for Xinjiang’s Muslim Uighur minority—including the Turkistan Islamic Party and before it, the East Turkistan Islamic Movement—have been linked to numerous low-level attacks using knives and vehicles as weapons." 
  40. ↑ Wines, Michael. "Wang Lequan Is China's Strongman in Controlling Uighurs" (in en). https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/11/world/asia/11xinjiang.html. 
  41. ↑ "China Steps Up 'Strike Hard' Campaign in Xinjiang" (in en). https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/strike-hard-01092014172927.html. 
  42. ↑ Wong, Edward (30 May 2014). "China Moves to Calm Restive Xinjiang Region". https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/31/world/asia/chinas-leader-lays-out-plan-to-pacify-restive-region.html. Retrieved 11 May 2019. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Shepherd, Christian; Blanchard, Ben (2017-03-30). "China sets rules on beards, veils to combat extremism in Xinjiang" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/china-xinjiang-int-idUSKBN1710DD. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Maizland, Lindsay. "China's Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang". https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-repression-uyghurs-xinjiang. 
  45. ↑ Groot, Gerry (2019), "Internment and Indoctrination—Xi's 'new Era' in Xinjiang", in Golley, Jane; Jaivin, Linda; Farrelly, Paul J. et al., Power, ANU Press, pp. 98–112, ISBN 978-1-76046-280-2 
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  47. ↑ "UN calls on China to free Uighurs from alleged re-education camps". Straits Times. 30 August 2018. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/un-accuses-china-of-counter-terrorism-pretext-in-mass-detention-of-muslim-uighurs. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 
  48. ↑ The Editorial Board (18 November 2019). "Beijing's Secrets of Xinjiang". The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/beijings-secrets-of-xinjiang-11574122496. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 
  49. ↑ Sales, Nathan; Brownback, Sam (22 May 2019). "China's attack on Uighurs isn't counterterrorism. It's ugly repression.". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/chinas-attack-on-uighurs-isnt-counterterrorism-its-ugly-repression/2019/05/22/7bfb1d60-7ccb-11e9-a5b3-34f3edf1351e_story.html. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang". Human Rights Watch 17 (2): 1–112. April 2005. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/china0405/china0405text.pdf. Retrieved 2019-12-04. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Kuo, Lily (6 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/revealed-new-evidence-of-chinas-mission-to-raze-the-mosques-of-xinjiang. 
  52. ↑ Harris, Rachel (2019-04-07). "Bulldozing mosques: the latest tactic in China's war against Uighur culture | Rachel Harris" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/07/bulldozing-mosques-china-war-uighur-culture-xinjiang. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/22/asia/china-xinjiang-uyghur-muslim-intl-hnk/index.html. 
  54. ↑ "Tongue-Tied; Education in Xinjiang". The Economist. June 27, 2015. 
  55. ↑ "China's Effort to Silence the Sound of Uyghur" (in en-US). https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/chinas-effort-to-silence-the-sound-of-uyghur/. 
  56. ↑ "Xinjiang Authorities Institute Mandarin-Only Instruction at Prominent Uyghur High School". https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/school-06122020180620.html. 
  57. ↑ "Detained and Disappeared: Intellectuals Under Assault in the Uyghur Homeland". https://uhrp.org/press-release/detained-and-disappeared-intellectuals-under-assault-uyghur-homeland.html. 
  58. ↑ "Ilham Tohti" (in en-US). 2016-09-12. https://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/ilham-tohti/. 
  59. ↑ Ramzy, Austin (2019-01-05). "China Targets Prominent Uighur Intellectuals to Erase an Ethnic Identity" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/05/world/asia/china-xinjiang-uighur-intellectuals.html. 
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  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "Even in death, Uighurs feel long reach of Chinese state". 9 October 2019. https://www.france24.com/en/20191009-even-in-death-uighurs-feel-long-reach-of-chinese-state. Retrieved 26 April 2020. "In just two years, dozens of cemeteries have been destroyed in the northwest region, according to an AFP investigation with satellite imagery analysts Earthrise Alliance.
    Some of the graves were cleared with little care -- in Shayar county, AFP journalists saw unearthed human bones left discarded in three sites."     
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "China disturbs even the Uighur dead in 'development' of Xinjiang". 11 October 2019. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/10/11/asia-pacific/social-issues-asia-pacific/death-uighurs-long-reach-china. Retrieved 25 April 2020. "Some of the graves were cleared with little care — in Shayar County, journalists saw unearthed human bones left discarded at three sites." 
  64. ↑ Rivers, Matt. "More than 100 Uyghur graveyards demolished by Chinese authorities, satellite images show". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/02/asia/xinjiang-uyghur-graveyards-china-intl-hnk/index.html. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 
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  67. ↑ Handley, Erin (17 Jan 2020). "Safe and sound? China launches propaganda blitz to discredit Uyghur #StillNoInfo campaign". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-18/safe-and-sound-china-propaganda-undercuts-xinjiang-uyghur/11865648. Retrieved 19 May 2020. 
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  71. ↑ "China's Uighurs told to share beds, meals with party members". 1 December 2018. https://apnews.com/9ca1c29fc9554c1697a8729bba4dd93b. Retrieved 18 December 2019. "In recent years, the government has even encouraged Uighurs and Han Chinese to tie the knot. Starting in 2014, Han-Uighur spouses in one county were eligible to receive 10,000 yuan ($1,442) annually for up to five years following the registration of their marriage license. Such marriages are highly publicized. The party committee in Luopu county celebrated the marriage of a Uighur woman and a “young lad” from Henan in an official social media account in October 2017. The man, Wang Linkai, had been recruited through a program that brought university graduates to work in the southern Xinjiang city of Hotan. “They will let ethnic unity forever bloom in their hearts,” the party committee’s post said. “Let ethnic unity become one’s own flesh and blood.”" 
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  74. ↑ "Xinjiang Police Open Fire at Protest Against Clampdown on Islamic Dress". 20 May 2014. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/dress-05202014202002.html. Retrieved 9 July 2020. 
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  107. ↑ World, Republic. "Xinjiang: Germany asks China to allow officials after fresh evidence". https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/rest-of-the-world-news/fresh-evidence-against-detention-camps-surfaces. 
  108. ↑ Baloch, Kiyya. "Norway: Automated calls from China embassy spook Uighur diaspora". https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/norway-automated-calls-china-embassy-spook-uighur-diaspora-191113205036890.html. 
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  127. ↑ "Uyghur: Saudi Arabia and Russia among 37 states backing China's policy" (in en-GB). 2019-07-12. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20190712-uighurs-saudi-arabia-and-russia-among-37-states-backing-chinas-policy/. 
  128. ↑ Cumming-Bruce, Nick (2019-07-12). "China's Retort Over Its Mass Detentions: Praise From Russia and Saudi Arabia" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/world/asia/china-human-rights-united-nations.html. 
  129. ↑ "China protests as US House passes Uygur bill demanding sanctions over Xinjiang" (in en). 2019-12-04. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3040466/us-house-passes-uygur-law-demanding-sanctions-china-over-human. 
  130. ↑ Lipes, Joshua (June 17, 2020). "Trump Signs Uyghur Rights Act Into Law, Authorizing Sanctions For Abuses in Xinjiang". Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/act-06082020173916.html. 
  131. ↑ Gaye Christoffersen (2 September 2002). "Constituting the Uyghur in U.S.-China Relations The Geopolitics of Identity Formation in the War on Terrorism". Strategic Insights 1 (7): 7. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36718304.pdf. Retrieved 9 May 2020. 
  132. ↑ Matt Hadro (12 March 2020). "Chinese forced labor is in US supply chain, Congressional report finds". https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/chinese-forced-labor-is-in-us-supply-chain-congressional-report-finds-45129. Retrieved 13 May 2020. "As many as 1.8 million Uyghurs, ethnic Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Muslim minorities are or have been detained in China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), a situation which groups like the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum are now calling a “crime against humanity.”" 
  133. ↑ "USCIRF Commends U.S. Holocaust Museum Spotlight on China". 24 April 2020. https://www.uscirf.gov/news-room/press-releases-statements/uscirf-commends-us-holocaust-museum-spotlight-china. Retrieved 13 May 2020. "The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) today commended the decision of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum to add China to its list of case studies due to concerns about the mass internment of Uighur and other Muslims." 
  134. ↑ Alim Seytoff, Joshua Lipes (6 March 2020). "US Holocaust Museum Labels China's Persecution of Uyghurs in Xinjiang 'Crimes Against Humanity'". https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/holocaust-03062020170229.html. Retrieved 13 May 2020. "The Chinese government’s persecution of ethnic Uyghurs—including their mass detention in internment camps—constitutes “crimes against humanity,” according to the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, opening an avenue for what one expert said could be legal action in an international court of law." 
  135. ↑ "China". https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/china. Retrieved 13 May 2020. 

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