Astronomy:Air-launch-to-orbit

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Air-launch-to-orbit (ALTO) is the method of launching smaller rockets at altitude from a heavier conventional horizontal-takeoff aircraft, to carry satellites to low Earth orbit. It is a follow-on development of air launches of experimental aircraft that began in the late 1940s. This method, when employed for orbital payload insertion, presents significant advantages over conventional vertical rocket launches, particularly because of the reduced mass, thrust, cost of the rocket, geographical factors, and natural disasters.

Air launching has also been developed for sub-orbital spaceflight. In 2004 the Ansari X Prize $10 Million purse was won by a team led by Burt Rutan's Scaled Composites, launching the SpaceShipOne from the purpose-built White Knight carrier aircraft.

The first air-launch-to-space (not to orbit) was a test launch of the ASM-135 ASAT antisatellite rocket, the first commercial air-launch-to-orbit took place on 5 April 1990 with a Northrop Grumman Pegasus.

Advantages

The principal advantage of a rocket being launched by a high-flying airplane is that it need not fly through the lower, denser atmosphere, whose drag requires a considerable[1] amount of extra work to overcome. Higher densities at lower altitudes result in larger drag forces acting on the vehicle. In addition, thrust is lost due to over-expansion of the exhaust at high ambient pressure and under-expansion at low ambient pressure; a fixed nozzle geometry cannot provide optimal exhaust expansion over the full range of ambient pressure, and represents a compromise solution. Rockets launched from high altitude can be optimized for lower ambient pressure, thus achieving greater thrust over the entire operating regime.

Propellant is conserved because the air-breathing carrier aircraft lifts the rocket to altitude much more efficiently. Airplane engines do not require on-board storage of an oxidizer, and they can use the surrounding air to produce thrust, such as with a turbofan. This allows the launch system to conserve a significant amount of mass that would otherwise be reserved for fuel, reducing the overall size. A larger fraction of the rocket mass can then include payload, reducing payload launch costs.


Air-launch-to-orbit also works well as part of a combination launch system such as a reusable air-launched single-stage-to-skyhook launch vehicle powered by a rocket or jet engine.

An additional benefit of air-launch-to-orbit is a reduced delta V needed to achieve orbit. This results in a greater payload to fuel ratio which reduces the cost per kilogram to orbit. To further leverage the delta V advantage, supersonic air-launch-to-orbit has been proposed.[2]

Air-launch-to-orbit also serves as alternative if conditions do not allow launching a rocket vertically from ground to orbit due to certain reasons, such as natural disasters (earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and volcanic eruptions).

Disadvantages

According to Aviation Week and Space Technology, air-launch-to-orbit is limited by aircraft size. Additionally, airplanes may generate large lateral forces which could damage payloads.[3]

Air launch systems

Operational

Retired

Under development

Proposed

  • Vulcan Aerospace 75-percent-scaled Dream Chaser crew-carrying spaceplane with rocket by Orbital Sciences[9]
  • Antonov, Aerospace Industry Corporation of China Antonov An-225 Mriya[10]
  • OREL [uk; uk; Авіаційний космічний ракетний комплекс «Оріль»] (proposed by Ukraine)
  • Sura [uk; uk; Безпілотний повітряно-космічний транспортний літак багаторазового використання «Сура»] (proposed by Ukraine)

Abandoned projects

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Flight Mechanics of Manned Sub-Orbital Reusable Launch Vehicles with Recommendations for Launch and Recovery". http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/flight_mechanics_of_manned_suborbital_reusable_launch_vehicles_with_recommendations_for_launch_and_recovery.shtml. 
  2. ↑ "Conceptual Design of a Supersonic Air-launch System". Archived from the original on 2015-02-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20150210181223/http://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/pubs/ClarkeEtal-2007-AIAA-2007-5841-AirLaunch.pdf. Retrieved 2014-12-03. 
  3. ↑ Norris, Guy (15 February 2015). "Design Space". Aviation Week and Space Technology 177 (2). 
  4. ↑ Scoles, Sarah (December 3, 2020). "Rocket-launching drone ready to take satellites into orbit". Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/rocket-launching-drone-ready-take-satellites-orbit. 
  5. ↑ "Technologies". Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. https://web.archive.org/web/20151208062458/http://cubecab.com/technologies.html. Retrieved 2015-12-01. 
  6. ↑ Leone, Dan (November 26, 2013). "Startup Generation Orbit Launch Service Bets Big on 'Small Space'". http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/38365startup-generation-orbit-launch-service-bets-big-on-%E2%80%98small-space%E2%80%99. 
  7. ↑ Diller, George (September 30, 2013). "NASA Awards First CubeSat-Class Launch Services Contract". Archived from the original on September 30, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130930203724/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2013/release-20130930.html#.U0LmXahdXuN. 
  8. ↑ Parsonson, Andrew (2026-05-11). "Italy Completes Air-Launched Rocket Demonstrator Test" (in en-US). https://europeanspaceflight.com/italy-completes-air-launched-rocket-demonstrator-test/. 
  9. ↑ Gebhardt, Chris (2014-11-26). "SNC, Stratolaunch expand on proposed Dream Chaser flights". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 2014-11-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20141128230714/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/11/snc-stratolaunch-dream-chaser-flights/. Retrieved 2014-11-27. 
  10. ↑ Borys, Christian (7 May 2017). "The world's biggest plane may have a new mission". BBC. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171020053757/http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170503-the-worlds-biggest-plane-may-have-a-new-mission. Retrieved 20 October 2017. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Russia, Kazakhstan to develop unique space system : "Ukrainian experts moved to develop the Svityaz system based on the An-225 Mriya (Dream) Cossack jumbo transport plane and the Zenit-2 rocket", "The Ishim complex will include two MiG-31I aircraft, a three-stage launch vehicle on a streamlined store between engine nacelles, as well as an Ilyushin Il-76MD Midas surveillance plane."
  12. ↑ Bergin, Chris (2013-05-25). "Stratolaunch and Orbital – The Height of Air Launch". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 2013-06-08. https://web.archive.org/web/20130608063833/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/stratolaunch-orbital-air-launch/. Retrieved 2013-05-24. 



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