Astronomy:Criticism of space exploration
Criticism of space exploration ranges from simple opposition to the cost and perceived benefit of manned space flight to philosophical or political critique.
History
Apollo missions
In 1963, years before the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon landing, American critical theorist Hannah Arendt argued that[1]
The conquest of space and the science that made it possible have come perilously close to this point. If they ever should reach it in earnest, the stature of man would not simply be lowered by all standards we know of but have been destroyed.
Throughout the 1960s, Students for a Democratic Society organized anti-NASA protests on college campuses. Sit-ins occurred at Columbia University's Pupin Physics Laboratories and MIT's Instrumentation Laboratory, as both conducted NASA research which was implemented by the United States military in Vietnam.[2] In July 1969, Civil rights leader Ralph Abernathy organized a protest at Cape Canaveral (then Cape Kennedy) to oppose the "inhuman priority" of space exploration over tackling poverty and racism.[3] When addressing the crowd, Abernathy said that "[t]he $23 billion we’ve spent going to the Moon has stolen money the black man needs for job retraining and schools."[4]
Contemporary arguments
Climate change
Amitai Etzioni wrote in 2018 that space colonization "brings with it an unavoidable subtext of despair", distracting from efforts to halt anthropogenic climate change, arguing that "any serious Mars endeavor will inevitably cut into the drive to save Mother Earth".[5] Some studies suggest that the projected increase in space travel will damage the ozone layer.[6][7] A single rocket launch produces 300 tons of carbon dioxide, staying longer in the upper atmosphere than emissions caused by airplanes or jets.[8] Thomas Fink, however, argues the long-term benefits of space science offset the ecological risks.[9]
Political
Alexis C. Madrigal, writing in the Los Angeles Sentinel in 2012, said that[10]
It would appear that the fathers of our nation would allow a few thousand hungry people to die for the lack of a few thousand dollars while they would contaminate the moon and its sterility for the sake of 'progress' and spend billions of dollars in the process, while people are hungry, ill-clothed, poorly educated (if at all).
Haris Durrani, writing in The Nation, argued in 2019 that "[s]paceflight almost invariably involves activities that directly subjugate marginalized peoples".[11][which?] Mark R. Royce, writing for Providence magazine, argued in 2020 that rather than being a non-partisan, inoffensive, and humanistic endeavor, space exploration is "largely irrational, originating at the intersection of the early Cold War arms race, the mass hysteria of the Red Scare, and the utopian worship of technical progress that characterized the mid-twentieth century."[12] Gabrielle Cornish argued in 2019 that the moon landing was "at its core, a territorial conquest" in the context of the Cold War.[13]
Linguistic
Several commentatorsTemplate:Whomst? have likened space exploration to settler-colonialism and imperialism.[14][15][clarification needed] Sociologist Zuleyka Zevallos at Swinburne University has brought attentionTemplate:Among whom to the language used within and around space science, writing that "there is no democratic way to colonize other lands" and that "It is about profit, and profit always marginalizes minorities". In contrast, Robert Zubrin of the Mars Society responds that it is different from comparing the history of colonialism on Earth with the establishment of colonies on Mars.[16][better source needed]
From within astrophysics
Fulbright scholar and Mars colonization advocate Zahaan Bharmal outlined three hypothetical arguments against human colonization of Mars: (1) that humans will contaminate Mars, (2) that robots have inherent advantages over humans in space exploration, and (3) that issues like climate change, overpopulation, and nuclear war should be prioritized over colonization. While broadly supportive of Mars colonization, Bharmal argues that humans "are perhaps not ready to go to Mars."[17]
Public opinion
Responses
See also
Notes
- ↑ "The Conquest of Space and the Stature of Man". 2020-09-26. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/the-conquest-of-space-and-the-stature-of-man.
- ↑ Maher, Neil M. (16 July 2019). "Opinion | Not Everyone Wanted a Man on the Moon (Published 2019)". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/opinion/apollo-11-nasa-woodstock.html.
- ↑ Smith, David (2019-07-14). "'Whitey's on the moon': why Apollo 11 looked so different to black America". http://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/14/apollo-11-civil-rights-black-america-moon.
- ↑ Robertson, Jack (1969-06-30). "Space Is Not Black". https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/archives-space-is-not-black/.
- ↑ "Humanity Would Be Better off Saving Earth, Rather Than Colonizing Mars". The National Interest. 25 August 2018. https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/humanity-would-be-better-saving-earth-rather-colonizing-mars-29712.
- ↑ Kluger, Jeffrey (2023-04-19). "There's No Way to Make Space Travel Good for Planet Earth Right Now". https://time.com/6273065/space-travel-climate-impact/.
- ↑ Kiest, Kristina (2022-06-21). "Projected increase in space travel may damage ozone layer". https://research.noaa.gov/2022/06/21/projected-increase-in-space-travel-may-damage-ozone-layer/.
- ↑ Gammon, Katharine (2021-07-19). "How the billionaire space race could be one giant leap for pollution". http://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/19/billionaires-space-tourism-environment-emissions.
- ↑ "Space Exploration: Are the Benefits Worth the Ecological Cost? | Vision 2045". vision2045.com. https://vision2045.com/space-exploration-are-the-benefits-worth-the-ecological-cost/.
- ↑ Madrigal, Alexis C. (12 September 2012). "Moondoggle: The Forgotten Opposition to the Apollo Program". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/09/moondoggle-the-forgotten-opposition-to-the-apollo-program/262254/.
- ↑ Durrani, Haris (19 July 2019). "Is Spaceflight Colonialism?". The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
- ↑ "The Political Theology of Space Exploration: Between Anarchy, State, and Utopia". Providence. 25 August 2020. https://providencemag.com/2020/08/political-theology-space-exploration-anarchy-state-utopia-nasa/.
- ↑ "Perspective | How imperialism shaped the race to the moon". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/07/22/how-imperialism-shaped-race-moon/.
- ↑ "The racist language of space exploration". The Outline. https://theoutline.com/post/5809/the-racist-language-of-space-exploration.
- ↑ "We need to change the way we talk about space exploration". Science. 9 November 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/we-need-to-change-way-we-talk-about-space-exploration-mars.
- ↑ "Should We Colonize Space or Decolonize It?". Newsweek. 25 May 2018. https://www.newsweek.com/should-we-colonize-space-some-people-argue-we-need-decolonize-it-instead-945130.
- ↑ Bharmal, Zahaan (28 August 2018). "The case against Mars colonisation". the Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2018/aug/28/the-case-against-mars-colonisation.
References
- Westfahl, Gary (1997). "The Case against Space". Science Fiction Studies (SF-TH Inc) 24 (2): 193–206. ISSN 0091-7729. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4240602. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
- Marshall, Alan (1995). "Development and imperialism in space". Space Policy (Elsevier BV) 11 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1016/0265-9646(95)93233-b. ISSN 0265-9646. Bibcode: 1995SpPol..11...41M.
- Vernikos, J (1961-04-12). "Human Exploration of Space: why, where, what for?". Hippokratia 12 (Suppl 1): 6–9. PMID 19048086.
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