Biology:K-casein

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Short description: Mammalian milk protein

"CSN3" redirects here. For the aerodrome, see Saint-Jérôme Aerodrome.
A representation of the 3D structure of the protein myoglobin showing turquoise α-helices.
Generic protein structure example

Κ-casein, or kappa casein, is a mammalian milk protein encoded in humans by the CSN3 gene.[1][2][3]

Structure

Molecular surface model of K-Casein[4]

Caseins are a family of phosphoproteins (αS1, αS2, β, κ) that account for nearly 80% of bovine milk proteins.[5]

Caseins form soluble aggregates known as casein micelles, in which κ-casein contributes to micelle stabilization. Several models have been proposed to explain micellar organization.[6]

One model proposes that the micellar nucleus is formed from submicelles, with the periphery composed of κ-casein-rich microvillosities.[7][8]

Another model proposes a nucleus composed of casein-interlinked fibrils.[9] A later model proposes that gel formation depends on dual interactions among casein molecules.[10]

All three models describe micelles as colloidal particles composed of casein aggregates surrounded by soluble κ-casein molecules.

Function

Κ-casein is involved in several important physiological processes in milk. Chymosin (found in rennet) cleaves κ-casein into an insoluble peptide, para-κ-casein, and a water-soluble glycomacropeptide (GMP).[11]

Milk-clotting proteases act on the soluble portion of κ-casein, generating an unstable micellar state that results in clot formation.[12]

Clinical significance

Glycomacropeptide (GMP), generated by cleavage of κ-casein, has been reported to increase digestive efficiency, prevent neonate hypersensitivity to ingested proteins, and inhibit gastric pathogens.[11]

Applications

Milk clotting

In red/blue Phe105-Met106 bond of κ- casein[4]

Chymosin (EC 3.4.23.4) is an aspartic protease that specifically hydrolyzes the peptide bond in Phe105-Met106 of κ- casein and is considered to be the most efficient protease for the cheesemaking industry.[13] However, there are milk-clotting proteases able to cleave other peptide bonds in the κ-casein chain, such as the endothiapepsin produced by Endothia parasitica.[14] There are also several milk-clotting proteases that, being able to cleave the Phe105-Met106 bond in the κ-casein molecule, also cleave other peptide bonds in other caseins, such as those produced by Cynara cardunculus[8][15][16] or even bovine chymosin.[17] This allows the manufacture of different cheeses with a variety of rheological and organoleptic properties.

The milk-clotting process consists of three main phases:[18]

  1. Enzymatic degradation of κ-casein.
  2. Micellar flocculation.
  3. Gel formation.

Each step follows a different kinetic pattern, the limiting step in milk-clotting being the degradation rate of κ-casein. The kinetic pattern of the second step of the milk-clotting process is influenced by the cooperative nature of micellar flocculation,[19][16] whereas the rheological properties of the gel formed depend on the type of action of the proteases, the type of milk, and the patterns of casein proteolysis.[16] The overall process is influenced by several different factors, such as pH or temperature.[15][12]

The conventional way of quantifying a given milk-clotting enzyme[20] employs milk as the substrate and determines the time elapsed before the appearance of milk clots. However, milk clotting may take place without the participation of enzymes because of variations in physicochemical factors, such as low pH or high temperature.[8][5][12] Consequently, this may lead to confusing and irreproducible results, particularly when the enzymes have low activity. At the same time, the classical method is not specific enough, in terms of setting the precise onset of milk gelation, such that the determination of the enzymatic units involved becomes difficult and unclear. Furthermore, although it has been reported that κ-casein hydrolysis follows typical Michaelis–Menten kinetics,[18] it is difficult to determine with the classic milk-clotting assay.

To overcome this, several alternative methods have been proposed, such as the determination of halo diameter in agar-gelified milk,[20] colorimetric measurement,[21] or determination of the rate of degradation of casein previously labeled with either a radioactive tracer[22] or a fluorochrome compound.[23] All these methods use casein as the substrate to quantify proteolytic or milk-clotting activities.

Enzymatic assay

Fluorescein isothiocyanate

Κ-casein labeled with the fluorochrome fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to yield the fluorescein thiocarbamoyl (FTC) derivative. This substrate is used to determinate the milk clotting activity of proteases.[24]

FTC-κ-casein method affords accurate and precise determinations of κ-caseinolytic degradation, the first step in the milk-clotting process. This method is the result of a modification to the one described by S.S. Twining (1984). The main modification was substituting the substrate previously used (casein) by κ-casein labeled with the fluorochrome fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to yield the fluorescein thiocarbamoyl (FTC) derivative. This variation allows quantification of the κ-casein molecules degraded in a more precise and specific way, detecting only those enzymes able to degrade such molecules. The method described by Twining (1984), however, was designed to detect the proteolytic activity of a considerably larger variety of enzymes. FTC-κ-casein allows the detection of different types of proteases at levels when no milk clotting is yet apparent, demonstrating its higher sensitivity over currently used assay procedures. Therefore, the method may find application as an indicator during the purification or characterization of new milk-clotting enzymes.

Interactions

Kappa-casein has been shown to interact with EIF3S6.[25]

References

  1. ↑ "Structure of the human kappa-casein gene". Gene 174 (1): 65–69. November 1996. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(96)00351-4. PMID 8863730. 
  2. ↑ "Genomic organization and chromosomal localization of the human casein gene family". Human Genetics 99 (3): 368–373. March 1997. doi:10.1007/s004390050374. PMID 9050925. 
  3. ↑ "Entrez Gene: CSN3 casein kappa". https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=1448. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Three-dimensional molecular modeling of bovine caseins: a refined, energy-minimized kappa-casein structure". Journal of Dairy Science 76 (9): 2507–2520. September 1993. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77586-4. PMID 8227653. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Invited review: perspectives on the basis of the rheology and texture properties of cheese". Journal of Dairy Science 86 (9): 2725–2743. September 2003. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73869-7. PMID 14507008. 
  6. ↑ "Casein Micelles as Colloids: Surface Structures and Stabilities". Journal of Dairy Science 81 (11): 3013–3018. 1998. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(98)75865-5. 
  7. ↑ "The voluminosity of bovine casein micelles and some of its implications". The Journal of Dairy Research 46 (2): 317–323. April 1979. doi:10.1017/S0022029900017234. PMID 469060. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Formation and Physical Properties of Milk Protein Gels". Journal of Dairy Science 85 (2): 281–294. 2002. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74078-2. PMID 11913691. 
  9. ↑ "Structure and Stability of Bovine Casein Micelles". Advances in Protein Chemistry Volume 43. 43. 1992. pp. 63–151. doi:10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60554-9. ISBN 978-0-12-034243-3. 
  10. ↑ "Casein Interactions: Casting Light on the Black Boxes, the Structure in Dairy Products". International Dairy Journal 8 (3): 171–177. 1998. doi:10.1016/S0958-6946(98)00040-5. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Kappa casein (IPR000117)". http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/IPR000117. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "Gelation mechanism of milk as influenced by temperature and pH; studied by the use of transglutaminase cross-linked casein micelles". Journal of Dairy Science 86 (5): 1556–1563. May 2003. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73741-2. PMID 12778566. 
  13. ↑ "Molecular and biotechnological aspects of microbial proteases". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 62 (3): 597–635. September 1998. doi:10.1128/MMBR.62.3.597-635.1998. PMID 9729602. 
  14. ↑ "Specificity of milk-clotting enzymes towards bovine kappa-casein". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Protein Structure and Molecular Enzymology 995 (3): 221–224. May 1989. doi:10.1016/0167-4838(89)90039-3. PMID 2495817. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Effect of pH on the gelation properties of skim milk gels made from plant coagulants and chymosin". Journal of Dairy Science 86 (8): 2558–2567. August 2003. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73850-8. PMID 12939079. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "Partial identification of water-soluble peptides released at early stages of proteolysis in sterilized ovine cheese-like systems: influence of type of coagulant and starter". Journal of Dairy Science 88 (6): 1947–1954. June 2005. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72870-8. PMID 15905424. 
  17. ↑ "Polyporopepsin". Handbook of Proteolytic Enzymes. 2004. pp. 111–115. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-079611-3.50035-5. ISBN 978-0-12-079611-3. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Kinetics of milk coagulation: I. The kinetics of kappa casein hydrolysis in the presence of enzyme deactivation". Biotechnology and Bioengineering 29 (5): 582–589. April 1987. doi:10.1002/bit.260290507. PMID 18576489. Bibcode: 1987BiotB..29..582C. 
  19. ↑ "Kinetics of milk coagulation: II. Kinetics of the secondary phase: micelle flocculation". Biotechnology and Bioengineering 29 (5): 590–600. April 1987. doi:10.1002/bit.260290508. PMID 18576490. Bibcode: 1987BiotB..29..590C. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Production and characterization of the milk-clotting protease of Myxococcus xanthus strain 422". Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology 30 (12): 691–698. December 2003. doi:10.1007/s10295-003-0100-y. PMID 14634834. 
  21. ↑ "Studies on Milk Proteins. II. Colorimetric Determination of the Partial Hydrolysis of the Proteins in Milk". Journal of Dairy Science 30 (11): 881–884. 1947. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(47)92412-0. 
  22. ↑ "A rapid method for measuring protease activity in milk using radiolabeled casein". Journal of Dairy Science 70 (9): 1807–1814. September 1987. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(87)80218-7. PMID 3117854. 
  23. ↑ "Fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled casein assay for proteolytic enzymes". Analytical Biochemistry 143 (1): 30–34. November 1984. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(84)90553-0. PMID 6442109. 
  24. ↑ "Fluorescein thiocarbamoyl-kappa-casein assay for the specific testing of milk-clotting proteases". Journal of Dairy Science 89 (10): 3770–3777. October 2006. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72418-3. PMID 16960051. 
  25. ↑ "Association of the mammalian proto-oncoprotein Int-6 with the three protein complexes eIF3, COP9 signalosome and 26S proteasome". FEBS Letters 527 (1–3): 15–21. September 2002. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03147-2. PMID 12220626. 

Further reading



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