Biology:American ginseng

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Short description: Species of flowering plant

American ginseng
Panax quinquefolius00.jpg
Panax quinquefolius[1]

Vulnerable (NatureServe)[2]
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Araliaceae
Genus: Panax
Subgenus: Panax subg. Panax
Species:
P. quinquefolius
Binomial name
Panax quinquefolius
Panax quinquefolius range map.svg
Synonyms[5]

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a species of flowering plant in the ivy family Araliaceae. It is native to eastern North America and introduced in China . The specific epithet quinquefolius means "five-leaved", which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf. It is one of a group of taxa known as "ginseng".

Europeans discovered American ginseng near Montreal in 1716. It has been wild-harvested and exported to Asia since 1720. Billions of plants were wild-harvested in the 19th century alone. To control international trade and prevent global extinction of the species, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service implements a CITES Export Program that authorizes 19 states and one tribe to export American ginseng from the United States. From 1978 to 2019, the bulk of exports have come from southern Appalachian states, especially Kentucky, West Virginia, and Tennessee .

The conservation status of American ginseng is globally vulnerable. It is imperiled or critically imperiled in 14 states and provinces. In Canada , the species is endangered and facing imminent extinction.

As wild populations declined in the late 19th century, American ginseng became a domesticated crop. It is cultivated primarily in Ontario, Wisconsin, British Columbia, and China. Canada is the largest producer and exporter of cultivated American ginseng in the world. It is the state herb of Wisconsin.

Description

Panax quinquefolius is a herbaceous perennial plant. Its aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows 6 to 18 in (15 to 46 cm) tall, usually bearing three compound leaves (sometimes called "prongs"), each with three to five leaflets, 2 to 5 in (5 to 13 cm) long.

Panax quinquefolius is sometimes confused with wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), another member of the ivy family (Araliaceae). The two species may be distinguished by their leaves. Panax quinquefolius has palmately compound leaves (with leaflets radiating from a single point) while Aralia nudicaulis has pinnately compound leaves (with leaflets arranged on either side of a central stalk).[6]

Phytochemistry

Chemical structure of protopanaxadiol

Like Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng), American ginseng contains dammarane-type ginsenosides, or saponins, as the major biologically active constituents. Dammarane-type ginsenosides include two classifications: 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PPT). American ginseng contains high levels of Rb1, Rd (PPD classification), and Re (PPT classification) ginsenosides—higher than that of P. ginseng in one study.[7]

When taken orally, PPD-type ginsenosides are mostly metabolized by intestinal bacteria (anaerobes) to PPD monoglucoside, 20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (M1).[8] In humans, M1 is detected in plasma starting seven hours after intake of PPD-type ginsenosides and in urine starting 12 hours after intake. These findings indicate M1 is the final metabolite of PPD-type ginsenosides.[9]

M1 is referred to in some articles as IH-901,[10] and in others as compound-K.[9]

Taxonomy

Aureliana canadensis, a synonym for Panax quinquefolius, illustrated by Joseph-François Lafitau in 1718
Whip-poor-will and Ginseng, illustrated by Mark Catesby in 1747

Panax quinquefolius was described as Aureliana canadensis by the French ethnologist and naturalist Joseph-François Lafitau in 1718.[11][12] As a Jesuit missionary in New France, Lafitau discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716.[13][14] In his search for a specimen, Father Lafitau enlisted the help of the Iroquois by showing them a published botanical illustration of gin-seng,[15] a Chinese name for a plant now known as Panax ginseng.[16] The Iroquois referred to American ginseng as garent-oguen, which means "resembles man" or "a man's thigh" in Iroquoian language.

Aureliana canadensis was further described by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in 1747.[17] Catesby published a striking color illustration of a live specimen transplanted from Pennsylvania to the garden of English botanist Peter Collinson in Peckham.[18] Aureliana canadensis Lafitau ex Catesby is an invalid name since it was published prior to 1 May 1753 (Art.13.1 ICN 2018).[19]

The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus validly described Panax quinquefolium in 1753,[4][20] but the name was later corrected to Panax quinquefolius.[citation needed] Linnaeus placed Aureliana canadensis Lafitau ex Catesby in synonymy with Panax quinquefolius, citing both Lafitau [1718] and Catesby [1747]. Its type specimen, designated in 1991, was reportedly collected by Pehr Kalm near Quebec in 1749.[21] The specific epithet quinquefolius means "five-leaved",[22] which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf.

Etymology

The name ginseng derives from the Chinese herbalism term, jen-shen.[23] Other Chinese names are huaqishen (simplified Chinese: 花旗参; traditional Chinese: 花旗參; pinyin: huāqíshēn; Cantonese Yale: fākèihsām; literally: 'Flower Flag ginseng') or xiyangshen (simplified Chinese: 西洋参; traditional Chinese: 西洋參; pinyin: xīyángshēn; Cantonese Yale: sāiyèuhngsām; literally: 'west ocean ginseng').

The word "panax" is derived from the Greek 'Panakos' (panacea), in reference to the various benefits attributed to the herb.[24]

Distribution and habitat

Panax quinquefolius is native to eastern United States and southeastern Canada.[25][26][27][28] It is found primarily in the Appalachian and Ozark mountains of the United States where it prefers full shade environments in deciduous hardwood forests.[2][29] It is introduced and cultivated in the following Chinese provinces: Guizhou, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, and Liaoning.[30]

Ecology

Panax quinquefolius is a summer flowering plant. In New England, flower buds and leaves emerge simultaneously around the middle of June, with flowers eventually appearing in July. Fruits mature to a deep red color by early September. The seeds exhibit a type of dormancy called morphophysiological dormancy, sometimes called "double dormancy", which requires two full winters to completely break dormancy. Germination finally takes place eighteen months after the fruit initially ripened.[31]

Exploitation and conservation

Europeans discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716.[16] By 1720, ginseng from Quebec was exported to China by the Company of the Indies, a French trading company.[32] Within a few decades, ginseng populations near Montreal were suffering from overharvesting and habitat destruction, and so the wild-harvesting of ginseng began to spread south.[33] By the end of the 18th century, Albany, New York had become a trading center for ginseng. In the United States, 13.7 million kilograms of wild ginseng root were exported between 1821 and 1899,[34] with an average of about 1.7 million kilograms per decade.

U.S. exports of wild American ginseng 1821–1899
Pounds Kilograms Metric tons
1821–29 3,871,765 1,756,203 1,756
1830–39 3,192,375 1,448,036 1,448
1840–49 3,915,129 1,775,872 1,776
1850–59 1,999,999 907,184 907
1860–69 4,149,445 1,882,156 1,882
1870–79 4,041,727 1,833,296 1,833
1880–89 6,771,830 3,071,650 3,072
1890–99 2,163,302 981,257 981
Total 30,105,572 13,655,654 13,656
Average per decade 3,763,196 1,706,957 1,707

More than 290,000 kilograms of dry ginseng roots were exported from the United States (U.S.) in 1841. It is estimated that this represents at least 64 million roots.[35] By extrapolation, more than 3 billion roots (and therefore plants) were wild-harvested in the U.S. between 1821 and 1899.

During the twentieth century, exports of wild ginseng from the U.S. were about half of what they were during the previous century, averaging about 580,000 kilograms per decade.[36] Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. exports of wild ginseng dropped to approximately 250,000 kilograms per decade.

U.S. exports of wild and wild-simulated American ginseng 1980–2019
Pounds Kilograms Metric tons
1980–89 1,034,539 469,259 469
1990–99 1,158,203 525,352 525
2000–09 648,632 294,215 294
2010–19 560,290 254,143 254
Total 3,401,664 1,542,969 1,542
Average per decade 850,416 385,742 385

The steady decline in export volume is likely the result of declining wild populations.

Export control

To control international trade, Panax quinquefolius is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).[37] CITES Appendix II includes species that, although currently not threatened with global extinction, may become so without trade controls. (As of September 2022), nineteen (19) states and one tribe are authorized to export American ginseng from the United States.[38] The following table lists the states and tribe with an approved CITES export permit for American ginseng (each state's NatureServe conservation status is shown in parentheses):[39]

U.S. exports of wild and wild-simulated American ginseng 1978–2019
Pounds Kilograms Metric tons
Kentucky (S3) 715,973 324,760 324.8
West Virginia (S3S4) 526,327 238,738 238.7
Tennessee (S3S4) 487,830 221,276 221.3
North Carolina (S3S4) 304,397 138,072 138.1
Indiana (S3) 299,009 135,628 135.6
Virginia (S3S4) 295,880 134,209 134.2
New York (S4) 249,903 113,354 113.4
Ohio (S4) 241,569 109,574 109.6
Illinois (S3?) 173,731 78,803 78.8
Wisconsin (S4) 102,830 46,643 46.6
Missouri (S4) 85,478 38,772 38.8
Arkansas (S4) 79,009 35,838 35.8
Pennsylvania (S4) 57,640 26,145 26.1
Minnesota (S3) 51,403 23,316 23.3
Iowa (S3) 42,402 19,233 19.2
Alabama (S4) 23,916 10,848 10.8
Georgia (S3) 23,166 10,508 10.5
Maryland (S2S3) 8,781 3,983 4.0
Vermont (S3) 6,334 2,873 2.9
Menominee Nation (?) 996 452 0.5
Total 3,776,574 1,713,025 1,713

From 1978 to 2019, 1,713,025 kilograms of wild and wild-simulated ginseng roots were legally exported from the United States. During this period, the bulk of exports came from southern Appalachian states including Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Of these, eastern Kentucky has consistently large harvests, apparently a result of habitat abundance, very high levels of rural poverty, and a very strong local tradition of ginseng collecting.[40] American ginseng also grows wild in a number of states that do not permit export, including Connecticut (S2), Delaware (S2), Kansas (S1), Maine (S3), Massachusetts (S3), Michigan (S2S3), Nebraska (S1), New Hampshire (S2), New Jersey (S2), Oklahoma (S1), Rhode Island (S1), and South Carolina (S4).[41]

Status

As determined by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, the conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is Endangered (E) in Canada.[42] In Ontario and Quebec, it is listed as Endangered and Threatened, respectively.[43] Both provincial designations refer to a species facing imminent extinction or extirpation. Consequently, the harvesting, possession, and export of wild American Ginseng in Canada is prohibited.

(As of June 2005), the NatureServe conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is globally vulnerable (G3G4).[2] It is vulnerable (S3) in 14 states; imperiled (S2) in 8 states and provinces; critically imperiled (S1) in 6 states; and possibly extirpated (SH) in the District of Columbia.

In addition to (or in lieu of) the NatureServe conservation status (in parentheses below), some states designate their own conservation status:


  • Connecticut (S2): Special Concern[44]
  • Delaware (S2)
  • Georgia (S3)
  • Illinois (S3?)
  • Indiana (S3)
  • Iowa (S3)
  • Kansas (S1)
  • Kentucky (S3)
  • Louisiana (S1)
  • Maine (S3): Endangered[45]
  • Maryland (S2S3)[46]
  • Massachusetts (S3): Special Concern[47]
  • Michigan (S2S3): Threatened[48]
  • Minnesota (S3): Special Concern[49]
  • Mississippi (S3)
  • Nebraska (S1): Threatened[50]
  • New Hampshire (S2): Threatened[51]
  • New Jersey (S2): S1[52]
  • New York (S4): Exploitably Vulnerable[53]
  • North Carolina (S3S4): Rare but Relatively Secure; Exploited[54]
  • Oklahoma (S1)
  • Pennsylvania (S4): Pennsylvania Vulnerable[55]
  • Rhode Island (S1): State Endangered[56]
  • South Dakota (S1)
  • Tennessee (S3S4): Special Concern; Commercially Exploited[57]
  • Vermont (S3): High Priority Species of Greatest Conservation Need[58]
  • Virginia (S3S4): Threatened[59]
  • West Virginia (S3S4)


Panax quinquefolius is apparently secure (S4) in New York and Pennsylvania (as shown above), as well as Alabama, Arkansas, Missouri, Ohio, South Carolina, and Wisconsin.

Threats

American ginseng was formerly particularly widespread in the Appalachian and Ozark regions (and adjacent forested regions such as Pennsylvania, New York and Ontario). Due to its popularity and unique habitat requirements, the wild plant has been overharvested, as well as lost through destruction of its habitat, and is thus rare in most parts of the United States and Canada.[60][61] Ginseng is also negatively affected by deer browsing, urbanization, and habitat fragmentation.[62] Today the greatest threat to American ginseng is irresponsible digging of its wild roots for export.[2]

Cultivation

As wild populations of American ginseng began to decline in the late 19th century, a market developed for cultivated ginseng. In 1887, the tinsmith George Stanton planted ginseng in the forest around Apulia Station, a hamlet in the town of Fabius in Onondaga County, New York.[39] Within a few years, he was growing ginseng in the open under artifical shade, and by the late 1890s, he had the largest ginseng plantation in the United States.[63] In his obituary (1908), Stanton was called the Father of the Cultivated Ginseng Industry.[64][65]

Several associations were formed to support commercial growers of American ginseng. In 1902, George Stanton became the first president of the New York State Ginseng Growers Association. By 1913, the Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio growers' associations had the largest memberships.[66] American ginseng is the state herb of Wisconsin.[67]

American ginseng is grown commercially under artificial shade.[68] Under these conditions, a crop is harvested three to five years after seeding. Ginseng is also grown under forest-based, wild-simulated conditions, which require 6–10 years (or more) before harvest.[69] Based solely on yield, forest farming may be 1/10 as productive as commercial cultivation.[39]

American ginseng is commercially cultivated in Canada (60%), United States (30%), and China (7%).[70] In North America, it is cultivated primarily in Ontario, Wisconsin, and British Columbia. In 1994, Ontario and Wisconsin produced 1.5 and 2.0 million pounds of ginseng, respectively, while British Columbia produced 0.5 million pounds.[71] In other words, Canada and the United States each produced 2.0 million pounds (1,000 tons) of ginseng in 1994. In contrast, in 2007, Canada and the United States produced an estimated 6,486 tons and 1,054 tons (resp.) of ginseng, exporting $66 million and $37 million (resp.) worth of ginseng in 2009.[72] Based on these figures, Canada is the largest producer and exporter of American ginseng in the world.

Some states encourage the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from remaining wild populations. American ginseng is woods-cultivated in Colorado, Kentucky, Maine, North Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia.[73][74]

Toxicity

Individuals requiring anticoagulant therapy such as warfarin should avoid use of ginseng.[75] It is not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function, or during pregnancy or breastfeeding.[75] Other adverse effects include headaches, anxiety, trouble sleeping and an upset stomach.[75]

Recent studies have shown that through the many cultivated procedures that American ginseng is grown, fungal molds, pesticides, and various metals and residues have contaminated the crop. Though these contaminating effects are not considerably substantial, they do pose health concerns that could lead to neurological problems, intoxication, cardiovascular disease and cancer.[76]

Uses

Ginseng has been a part of traditional Chinese medicine for over 2,000 years. In Asia, American ginseng is highly valued for its cooling and sedative medicinal effects (yin), whereas Asian ginseng embodies the warmer aspects of yang.[77]

American ginseng was of minor importance in traditional Native American medicine.[78][32][35] A number of the uses cited in the literature were likely adopted from the Chinese after the export trade from Canada to China began in 1720. The Iroquois ingested or smoked the roots as a panacea.[79] The Menominee in northern Wisconsin used it as a tonic and to increase one's mental capability,[80] while the Penobscot in Maine used it to promote fertility.[81] The Seminole in Florida used it for gunshot wounds.[82] Native peoples from multiple tribes gathered the roots to barter with white traders. In the late 19th century, the Cherokee sold large quantities of ginseng to traders for fifty cents a pound.[83]

Cold-fX is a product derived from the roots of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). The makers of Cold-fX were criticized for making health claims about the product that have never been tested or verified scientifically. Health Canada's review of the scientific literature confirmed that this is not a claim that the manufacturer is entitled to make.[84] More generally, there is no evidence that American ginseng is effective against the common cold.[75]

Culture

In the local vernacular, American ginseng has been variously known as "cheng", "chang", "sang", or "shang".[32] Those collecting it have been called "shangers" and hunting for it has been called "shanging".[85] In Appalachia, the wild-harvesting of American ginseng is called "sang hunting". Some blue-collar Appalachian families have been hunting sang for generations.[60][86]

Gallery

  • American ginseng in human figure.

  • Under wooden shade, American ginseng in late fall at Monk Garden in Wisconsin

  • A picture of the American ginseng plant with fruit.

  • American ginseng berries are ripe by late fall in Wisconsin.

  • A drawn image of the fruit and leaf of the American ginseng plant.

  • A drawn image of the American ginseng plants leaves.

  • American wild ginseng root (Panax quinquefolius). Old roots, ranging from 40–60 growth scars.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Panax_quinquefolius L., from "American medical botany being a collection of the native medicinal plants of the United States, containing their botanical history and chemical analysis, and properties and uses in medicine, diet and the arts" by Jacob Bigelow,1786/7-1879. Publication in Boston by Cummings and Hilliard,1817-1820.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Panax quinquefolius". NatureServe Explorer. NatureServe. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.130734/Panax_quinquefolius. 
  3. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Panax quinquefolius L.". International Plant Names Index (IPNI). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://www.ipni.org/n/300467-2. 
  5. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius L." (in en). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/300467-2. 
  6. ↑ Firestone, Chris K. (April 1, 2022). "Be aware—no foolin'!". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/GoodNatured/Pages/Article.aspx?post=201. 
  7. ↑ Zhu, S.; Zou, K.; Fushimi, H.; Cai, S.; Komatsu, K. (2004). "Comparative study on triterpene saponins of ginseng drugs". Planta Medica 70 (7): 666–677. doi:10.1055/s-2004-827192. PMID 15303259. 
  8. ↑ Hasegawa, H.; Sung, J.-H.; Matsumiya, S.; Uchiyama, M. (1996). "Main ginseng saponin metabolites formed by intestinal bacteria". Planta Medica 62 (5): 453–457. doi:10.1055/s-2006-957938. PMID 8923812. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Tawab, M. A.; Bahr, U.; Karas, M.; Wurglics, M.; Schubert-Zsilavecz, M. (2003). "Degradation of ginsenosides in humans after oral administration". Drug Metabolism and Disposition 31 (8): 1065–1071. doi:10.1124/dmd.31.8.1065. PMID 12867496. 
  10. ↑ Oh, S.-H.; Lee, B.-H. (2004). "A ginseng saponin metabolite-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells involves a mitochondria-mediated pathway and its downstream caspase-8 activation and Bid cleavage". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 194 (3): 221–229. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2003.09.011. PMID 14761678. 
  11. ↑ Lafitau, Joseph-Francois (1718). Memoire presente a Son Altesse royale Monseigneur le duc dOrleans, regent du royaume de France : concernant la precieuse plante du gin-seng de Tartarie, decouverte en Canada par le P. Joseph Francois Lafitau. Paris: Chez Joseph Monge, rue S. Jacques vis-a-vis le College de Louis le Grand, a Saint Ignace. https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/2020705. Retrieved 30 December 2023. 
  12. ↑ Belanus, Betty. "The Art of Ginseng—Illustration 4: La Plante du Gin-seng by Joseph-François Lafitau, 1718". Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/the-art-of-ginseng-images-that-tell-the-story-of-american-ginseng-and-reveal-its-hidden-presence-throughout-our-shared-lands-and-histories/ptKF853sc1ISuMLa#r/1190139. 
  13. ↑ Carlson (1986), pp. 233–234.
  14. ↑ Fenton, William N. (1974). "Lafitau, Joseph-François". in Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/lafitau_joseph_francois_3E.html. 
  15. ↑ Jartoux (1713), Tab. V (between pages 242 and 243).
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Brinckmann & Huang (2018), pp. 908–910.
  17. ↑ Catesby, Mark (1747). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama islands. Appendix. London. p. 16. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/126154#page/356/mode/1up. Retrieved 3 January 2024. 
  18. ↑ Belanus, Betty. "The Art of Ginseng—Illustration 5: The Whip-Poor-Will". Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/the-art-of-ginseng-images-that-tell-the-story-of-american-ginseng-and-reveal-its-hidden-presence-throughout-our-shared-lands-and-histories/ptKF853sc1ISuMLa#r/1190142. 
  19. ↑ "Aureliana canadensis Lafitau ex Catesby". International Plant Names Index (IPNI). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://www.ipni.org/n/77334147-1. 
  20. ↑ Linnaeus (1753), pp. 1058–1059.
  21. ↑ Reveal, James L. (December 1991). "Typification of Panax quinquefolium Linnaeus (Araliaceae)". Phytologia 71 (6): 472–474. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13167673#page/46/mode/1up. Retrieved 24 December 2023. 
  22. ↑ Gledhill (2008), p. 324.
  23. ↑ "Ginseng". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/ginseng#etymonline_v_6104. 
  24. ↑ "Benefits of American Ginseng: Dosage & Safety – Botanical Institute" (in en-US). https://botanicalinstitute.org/american-ginseng/. 
  25. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PAQU. 
  26. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius", State-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA) (Biota of North America Program (BONAP)), 2014, http://bonap.net/MapGallery/State/Panax%20quinquefolius.png, retrieved 27 December 2023 
  27. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius", County-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA) (Biota of North America Program (BONAP)), 2014, http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Panax%20quinquefolius.png, retrieved 27 December 2023 
  28. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius Linnaeus". https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/taxon/2694. 
  29. ↑ Anderson, M. Kat; Peterson, J. Scott. "American Ginseng". USDA, NRCS. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_paqu.pdf. 
  30. ↑ Xiang, Qibai; Lowry, Porter P., "Panax quinquefolius", Flora of China, 13, http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200015253, retrieved 25 December 2023 
  31. ↑ Hu, Rüdenberg & Del Tredici (1980), p. 630.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Carlson (1986), p. 234.
  33. ↑ Manget (2017), pp. 55–56.
  34. ↑ Carlson (1986), p. 239 (Table 1).
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 McGraw et al. (2013), p. 2.
  36. ↑ Liu et al. (2021), Figure 1.
  37. ↑ "Appendices I, II and III". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. 2010-10-14. http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml. 
  38. ↑ Chief, Branch of Monitoring and Consultation, Division of Scientific Authority, USFWS (1 September 2022). "General Advice for the export of wild and wild-simulated American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) roots legally harvested during the 2022 harvest season in the 19 States and Tribe with an approved CITES Export Program for American ginseng" (PDF). Letter to Chief, Branch of Permits, Division of Management Authority, USFWS. Washington, DC: United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Liu et al. (2021).
  40. ↑ Schmidt et al. (2019), p. 145.
  41. ↑ Schmidt et al. (2019), p. 141.
  42. ↑ "American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)". Government of Canada. https://species-registry.canada.ca/index-en.html#/species/217-173. 
  43. ↑ "Recovery Strategy for the American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Canada 2018". Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/recovery-strategies/american-ginseng-2018.html. 
  44. ↑ "Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Plants". Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection. August 5, 2015. https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Endangered-Species/Endangered-Species-Listings/Endangered-Threatened--Special-Concern-Plants. 
  45. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius L.". Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation & Forestry. https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mnap/features/panqui.htm. 
  46. ↑ "Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Plants of Maryland". Maryland Department of Natural Resources. March 2021. https://dnr.maryland.gov/wildlife/Documents/rte_Plant_List_expanded.pdf. 
  47. ↑ "American Ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L.". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. https://www.mass.gov/doc/american-ginseng/download. 
  48. ↑ Penskar, M. R.; Higman, P. J. (1996). "Special plant abstract for Panax quinquefolius L. (ginseng)". Lansing: Michigan Natural Features Inventory. https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/botany/Panax_quinquefolius.pdf. 
  49. ↑ "Panax quinquefolius L. (American ginseng)". Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PDARA09010. 
  50. ↑ "American ginseng". Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. https://outdoornebraska.gov/learn/nebraska-wildlife/nebraska-plants/american-ginseng/. 
  51. ↑ "New Hampshire Official Rare Plants List". New Hampshire Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. 2020. https://www.nh.gov/nhdfl/reports/rare-plant-list.htm. 
  52. ↑ "New Jersey State Forest Action Plan". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. December 2020. https://www.nj.gov/dep/parksandforests/forest/njsfap/docs/njsfap-final-12312020.pdf. 
  53. ↑ Ring, Richard M. (December 2022). "New York Rare Plant Status Lists". New York Natural Heritage Program. https://www.nynhp.org/documents/5/rare-plant-status-lists-2022.pdf. 
  54. ↑ "Rare Plant List". North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. 2022. https://www.ncnhp.org/references/publications/2022-rare-plant-list. 
  55. ↑ "American Ginseng in Pennsylvania". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/Conservation/WildPlants/Ginseng/Pages/default.aspx. 
  56. ↑ "Rhode Island Rare Plants". Rhode Island Natural History Survey. 2016. https://dem.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur861/files/programs/benviron/water/permits/fresh/pdfs/rhode-island-rare-plants.pdf. 
  57. ↑ "Tennessee Ginseng Program". Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/environment/natural-areas/documents/TN_GINSENG_PROGRAM_BROCHURE.pdf. 
  58. ↑ "Species of Greatest Conservation Need". Vermont Department of Fish & Wildlife. 2015. https://vtfishandwildlife.com/sites/fishandwildlife/files/documents/About%20Us/Budget%20and%20Planning/WAP2015/5.-SGCN-Lists-Taxa-Summaries-%282015%29.pdf. 
  59. ↑ "Ginseng". Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. https://www.vdacs.virginia.gov/plant-industry-services-ginseng.shtml. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Cataneo, Emily (4 November 2020). "In Appalachia, a Plan to Save Wild Ginseng". Undark. https://undark.org/2020/11/04/save-wild-ginseng-appalachia/. 
  61. ↑ Beattie-Moss, Melissa (June 18, 2006). "Roots and Regulations: The unfolding story of Pennsylvania ginseng". PennState. https://www.psu.edu/news/research/story/roots-and-regulations/. 
  62. ↑ "Population Biology and Conservation Ecology of American Ginseng". West Virginia University. http://www.as.wvu.edu/~jmcgraw/JBMPersonalSite/PopBioConsEcol.html. 
  63. ↑ Manget (2017), pp. 267–277.
  64. ↑ "George Stanton and A.R. Harding, early figures in ginseng knowledge". Smithsonian Institution. https://folklife.si.edu/american-ginseng#george-stanton-ar-harding. 
  65. ↑ Bramer, J. K. (March 1908). "Obituary: George Stanton". Special Crops 7 (67): 42–43. https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/VnXNAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA42. Retrieved 9 January 2024. 
  66. ↑ Carlson (1986), p. 235–238.
  67. ↑ Kasper, Madeline (December 2017). "Ginseng: the official herb of Wisconsin". Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau Reports 1 (6). https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/misc/lrb/lrb_reports/lrb_reports_1_6.pdf. Retrieved 12 January 2024. 
  68. ↑ "Ginseng production in Ontario". Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. September 22, 2022. https://www.ontario.ca/page/ginseng-production-ontario. 
  69. ↑ "Wild-Simulated Forest Farming for Ginseng Production". Association for Temperate Agroforestry. https://www.aftaweb.org/latest-newsletter/temporate-agroforester/57-1997-vol-5/january-no-1/23-forest-ginseng-production.html. 
  70. ↑ Xiao, Max (2000-02-07). "The Canadian Ginseng Industry". Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. https://boletines.exportemos.pe/recursos/boletin/canadian-ginseng-industry-preparing-21-century-2000.pdf. 
  71. ↑ Jia & Zhao (2009).
  72. ↑ Baeg & So (2013).
  73. ↑ "There is More to a Forest than Trees". Virginia Tech. Summer 2002. http://www.research.vt.edu/resmag/2002summer/forestproducts.html. 
  74. ↑ "Ginseng program". Kentucky Agriculture Department. 2017. http://www.kyagr.com/marketing/plantmktg/ginseng.htm. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 "Asian ginseng". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. September 2016. https://nccih.nih.gov/health/asianginseng/ataglance.htm. 
  76. ↑ Wang, Zengui; Huang, Linfang (March 2015). "Panax quinquefolius: An overview of the contaminants". Phytochemistry Letters 11: 89–94. doi:10.1016/j.phytol.2014.11.013. Bibcode: 2015PChL...11...89W. 
  77. ↑ "About Ontario Ginseng". Ontario Ginseng Growers Association. https://ginsengontario.com/about/. 
  78. ↑ Brinckmann & Huang (2018), pp. 910–911.
  79. ↑ "American Ginseng: Iroquois". http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25374/. 
  80. ↑ "American Ginseng: Menominee". http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25384/. 
  81. ↑ "American Ginseng: Penobscot". http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25396/. 
  82. ↑ "American Ginseng: Seminole". http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25401/. 
  83. ↑ "American Ginseng: Cherokee". http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25347/. 
  84. ↑ Charlie Gillis (2007-03-26). "COLD-fX catches the sniffles again". Maclean's Magazine. http://www.macleans.ca/homepage/magazine/article.jsp?content=20070326_103302_103302. 
  85. ↑ Gilman (2015), p. 492.
  86. ↑ "Ginseng (sang), the thrill of the hunt". Pike County Historical Society. March 2022. https://pikecountykyhistoricalsociety.com/ginseng-sang-the-thrill-of-the-hunt/. 

Bibliography

External links


Wikidata ☰ Q2737217 entry



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