Biology:Penicillium chrysogenum
| Penicillium chrysogenum | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Eurotiomycetes |
| Order: | Eurotiales |
| Family: | Aspergillaceae |
| Genus: | Penicillium |
| Species: | P. chrysogenum
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| Binomial name | |
| Penicillium chrysogenum Thom (1910)
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Penicillium chrysogenum (formerly known as Penicillium notatum) is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium. It is common in temperate and subtropical regions and can be found on salted food products,[1] but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings.[2] It has been recognised as a species complex that includes P. notatum, P. meleagrinum, and P. cyaneofulvum.[3] Molecular phylogeny has established that Alexander Fleming's first discovered penicillin producing strain is of a distinct species, P. rubens, and not of P. notatum.[4][5] It has rarely been reported as a cause of human disease.[6] It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin. Other secondary metabolites of P. chrysogenum include roquefortine C, meleagrin,[7] chrysogine,[8] 6-MSA[9] YWA1/melanin,[10] andrastatin A,[11] fungisporin,[12] secalonic acids, sorbicillin,[13][14] and PR-toxin.[15]
Like the many other species of the genus Penicillium, P. chrysogenum usually reproduces by forming dry chains of spores (or conidia) from brush-shaped conidiophores. The conidia are typically carried by air currents to new colonisation sites. In P. chrysogenum, the conidia are blue to blue-green, and the mold sometimes exudes a yellow pigment. However, P. chrysogenum cannot be identified based on colour alone. Observations of morphology and microscopic features are needed to confirm its identity and DNA sequencing is essential to distinguish it from closely related species such as P. rubens. The sexual stage of P. chrysogenum was discovered in 2013 by mating cultures in the dark on oatmeal agar supplemented with biotin, after the mating types (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2) of the strains had been determined using PCR amplification.[16]
The airborne asexual spores of P. chrysogenum are important human allergens. Vacuolar and alkaline serine proteases have been implicated as the major allergenic proteins.[17]
P. chrysogenum has been used industrially to produce penicillin and xanthocillin X, to treat pulp mill waste, and to produce the enzymes polyamine oxidase, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and glucose oxidase.[15][18]
Science
The discovery of penicillin ushered in a new age of antibiotics derived from microorganisms. Penicillin is an antibiotic isolated from growing Penicillium mold in a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing sugar and other nutrients including a source of nitrogen. As the mold grows, it uses up the sugar and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth.
History
Genetics and evolution
The ability to produce penicillin appears to have evolved over millions of years, and is shared with several other related fungi. It is believed to confer a selective advantage during competition with bacteria for food sources.[citation needed] Some bacteria have consequently developed the counter-ability to survive penicillin exposure by producing penicillinases, enzymes that degrade penicillin.[citation needed] Penicillinase production is one mechanism by which bacteria can become penicillin resistant.
The principal genes responsible for producing penicillin, pcbAB, pcbC, and penDE are closely linked, forming a cluster on chromosome I.[19] Some high-producing Penicillium chrysogenum strains used for the industrial production of penicillin contain multiple tandem copies of the penicillin gene cluster.[20]
Similar to other filamentous fungi, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing techniques are available for editing the genome of Penicillium chrysogenum.[21]
References
- ↑ Food and Indoor Fungi. Utrecht, the Netherlands: CBS-KNAW- Fungal Biodiversity Centre. 2010. pp. 1–398.
- ↑ "Associations between fungal species and water-damaged building materials.". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 77 (12): 4180–8. June 2011. doi:10.1128/AEM.02513-10. PMID 21531835. Bibcode: 2011ApEnM..77.4180A.
- ↑ "A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 43 (2): 169–75. 1977. doi:10.1007/BF00395671. PMID 413477.
- ↑ Houbraken, Jos; Frisvad, Jens C.; Samson, Robert A. (2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens" (in en). IMA Fungus 2 (1): 87–95. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMID 22679592.
- ↑ Houbraken, J.; Frisvad, J.C.; Seifert, K.A.; Overy, D.P.; Tuthill, D.M.; Valdez, J.G.; Samson, R.A. (2012-12-31). "New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena" (in en). Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi 29 (1): 78–100. doi:10.3767/003158512X660571. PMID 23606767.
- ↑ Lyratzopoulos, G.; Ellis, M.; Nerringer, R.; Denning, D. W. (October 2002). "Invasive infection due to penicillium species other than P. marneffei". The Journal of Infection 45 (3): 184–195. doi:10.1053/jinf.2002.1056. ISSN 0163-4453. PMID 12387776.
- ↑ "A branched biosynthetic pathway is involved in production of roquefortine and related compounds in Penicillium chrysogenum". PLOS ONE 8 (6): e65328. 2013-06-12. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065328. PMID 23776469. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...865328A.
- ↑ "Pathway for the Biosynthesis of the Pigment Chrysogine by Penicillium chrysogenum". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 84 (4). February 2018. doi:10.1128/AEM.02246-17. PMID 29196288. Bibcode: 2018ApEnM..84E2246V.
- ↑ "Penicillium chrysogenum as Cell Factory for Natural Products" (in en). Frontiers in Microbiology 9: 2768. 2018. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02768. PMID 30524395.
- ↑ "Deregulation of secondary metabolism in a histone deacetylase mutant of Penicillium chrysogenum". MicrobiologyOpen 7 (5): e00598. October 2018. doi:10.1002/mbo3.598. PMID 29575742.
- ↑ "Reconstituted biosynthesis of fungal meroterpenoid andrastin A" (in en). Tetrahedron 69 (38): 8199–8204. September 2013. doi:10.1016/j.tet.2013.07.029.
- ↑ "A non-canonical NRPS is involved in the synthesis of fungisporin and related hydrophobic cyclic tetrapeptides in Penicillium chrysogenum". PLOS ONE 9 (6): e98212. 2014-06-02. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098212. PMID 24887561. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...998212A.
- ↑ "Identification of a Polyketide Synthase Involved in Sorbicillin Biosynthesis by Penicillium chrysogenum". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 82 (13): 3971–3978. July 2016. doi:10.1128/AEM.00350-16. PMID 27107123. Bibcode: 2016ApEnM..82.3971S.
- ↑ "Mechanism and regulation of sorbicillin biosynthesis by Penicillium chrysogenum". Microbial Biotechnology 10 (4): 958–968. July 2017. doi:10.1111/1751-7915.12736. PMID 28618182.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Atlas of Clinical Fungi - 2nd Edition, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (Utrecht), 2000
- ↑ "Sexual reproduction and mating-type-mediated strain development in the penicillin-producing fungus Penicillium chrysogenum". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (4): 1476–81. January 2013. doi:10.1073/pnas.1217943110. PMID 23307807.
- ↑ "Molecular and immunological characterization of Pen ch 18, the vacuolar serine protease major allergen of Penicillium chrysogenum". Allergy 58 (10): 993–1002. October 2003. doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2003.00107.x. PMID 14510716.
- ↑ A manual of the Penicillia. Williams & Wilkins Company (Baltimore). 1949.
- ↑ "Expression of genes and processing of enzymes for the biosynthesis of penicillins and cephalosporins". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 65 (3): 227–43. 1994. doi:10.1007/BF00871951. PMID 7847890.
- ↑ "The penicillin gene cluster is amplified in tandem repeats linked by conserved hexanucleotide sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92 (13): 6200–4. June 1995. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.13.6200. PMID 7597101. Bibcode: 1995PNAS...92.6200F.
- ↑ "CRISPR/Cas9 Based Genome Editing of Penicillium chrysogenum". ACS Synthetic Biology 5 (7): 754–64. July 2016. doi:10.1021/acssynbio.6b00082. PMID 27072635. https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/fdc94090-8487-4232-b96c-8d9f401a363b.
External links
- "Penicillium chrysogenum". Tom Volk's fungus of the month. http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/nov2003.html.
Wikidata ☰ Q137155 entry
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