Biology:Scarus
Scarus is a genus of parrotfishes. With 52 currently recognised extant species,[1] it is by far the largest parrotfish genus. The vast majority are found at reefs in the Indo-Pacific, but a small number of species are found in the warmer parts of the eastern Pacific and the western Atlantic, with a single species, Scarus hoefleri in the eastern Atlantic.[1]
The genus name Scarus comes from the Greek word σκάρος (skáros), which refers to parrotfishes.[2]
Evolution
Scarus is most closely related to its sister genus Chlorurus. Most recent phylogenetic analyses find that the two genera diverged during the late Miocene (Messinian).[3] In both genera, most of their diversification occurred some time later, within the last 3.5 million years during the Pliocene.[4] In contrast, coral reefs in their modern form were established much earlier, during the Miocene.[3]
Most Scarus species occur in reef habitats. However, some of the more basal species such as S. zufar occur in rockier, more peripheral habitats, suggesting that this may be the ancestral habitat type for the genus.[3]
A 2012 phylogenetic analysis of 45 Scarus species recovered 10 major monophyletic clades.[3]
Description
Adults of most species reach maximum lengths of between 30 and 50 cm (12–20 in), but the rainbow parrotfish (Scarus guacamaia) can grow to lengths of 1.2 m (3.9 ft)[1] and is the second largest species of parrotfish after the humphead parrotfish.[5] S. guacamaia weighs a hundred times more than the smallest Scarus species Scarus iseri,[3] which only reaches a maximum length of 27 cm.[6]
In comparison to its sister genus Chlorurus, Scarus species in general have less obtuse head profiles, less extensive cheek areas, and smaller dental plates, although a few relatively basal species of Scarus are exceptions to this. This may possibly reflect comparatively lower biting power, and a disparity in the ability to excavate calcareous reef subtrata.[3]
Sexual dichromatism
Most Scarus species are very colourful, and most are sexually dichromatic, with strikingly different initial (male and female) and terminal (male only) phases.[1][7] However in a few species, initial phase and terminal phase colouration remains the same. Examples of such sexually monochromatic species include S. guacamaia, S. coelestinus, S. perrico, S. niger,[7] and S. coeruleus.[5]
Ecology
Scarus species are important herbivores in reef ecosystems, feeding predominantly on algae and dead coral.[9] In the process, they facilitate bioerosion and create sediment.[10]
Lifespan varies across different species. More short-lived species, such as the common parrotfish (S. psittacus), live for up to 6 years.[6] Other species are more long-lived; the endangered greenback parrotfish (S. trispinosus) has been recorded living for over 20 years, and is the largest herbivorous reef fish in the South Atlantic.[10] Its close relative, the midnight parrotfish (S. coelestinus),[3] has been recorded reaching 31 years of age.[6] Such large bodied and long-lived species are highly vulnerable to over-exploitation by fisheries.[10]
Many species within the genus are sympatric with each other, and often are sympatric with their sister species; Scarus frequently underwent sympatric speciation through adaptive radiation.[3]
Species
There are currently 52 recognised species in this genus:[1]
| Species | Common name | Initial phase | Terminal phase |
|---|---|---|---|
| Scarus altipinnis
(Steindachner, 1879) |
filament-finned parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus arabicus
(Steindachner, 1902) |
Arabian parrotfish | ||
| Scarus caudofasciatus
(Günther, 1862) |
red-barred parrotfish | ||
| Scarus chameleon
Choat & Randall, 1986 |
chameleon parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus chinensis
(Steindachner, 1867) |
|||
| Scarus coelestinus
Valenciennes, 1840 |
midnight parrotfish | .jpg) | |
| Scarus coeruleus
(Edwards, 1771) |
blue parrotfish | .jpg) | |
| Scarus collana
Rüppell, 1835 |
Red Sea parrotfish | ||
| Scarus compressus
(Osburn & Nichols 1916) |
azure parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus dimidiatus
Bleeker, 1859 |
yellow-barred parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus dubius
(E. T. Bennett, 1828) |
regal parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus falcipinnis
(Playfair, 1868) |
sicklefin parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus ferrugineus
Forsskål, 1775 |
rusty parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus festivus
Valenciennes, 1840 |
festive parrotfish | ||
| Scarus flavipectoralis
Schultz, 1958 |
yellowfin parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus forsteni
(Bleeker, 1861) |
Forsten's parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus frenatus
Lacépède, 1802 |
bridled parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus fuscocaudalis
Randall & Myers, 2000 |
darktail parrotfish | ||
| Scarus fuscopurpureus
(Klunzinger, 1871) |
purple-brown parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus ghobban
Forsskål, 1775 |
blue-barred parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus globiceps
Valenciennes, 1840 |
globehead parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus gracilis
(Steindachner 1869) |
|||
| Scarus guacamaia
Cuvier, 1829 |
rainbow parrotfish | .jpg) | |
| Scarus hoefleri
(Steindachner, 1881) |
Guinean parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus hypselopterus
Bleeker, 1853 |
yellowtail parrotfish | .jpg) |
frameless |
| Scarus iseri
(Bloch, 1789) |
striped parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus koputea
Randall & Choat, 1980 |
Marquesan parrotfish | ||
| Scarus longipinnis
Randall & Choat, 1980 |
highfin parrotfish | ||
| Scarus maculipinna
Westneat, Satapoomin & Randall, 2007 |
spot-fin parrotfish | ||
| Scarus niger
Forsskål, 1775 |
dusky parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus obishime
Randall & Earle, 1993 |
yellowtail parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus oviceps
Valenciennes, 1840 |
dark-capped parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus ovifrons
Temminck & Schlegel, 1846 |
knobsnout parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus perrico
Jordan & Gilbert, 1882 |
bumphead parrotfish |  | |
| Scarus persicus
Randall & Bruce, 1983 |
gulf parrotfish | ||
| Scarus prasiognathos
Valenciennes, 1840 |
Singapore parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus psittacus
Forsskål 1775 |
common parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus quoyi
Valenciennes, 1840 |
Quoy's parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus rivulatus
Valenciennes, 1840 |
rivulated parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus rubroviolaceus
Bleeker, 1847 |
ember parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus russelii
Valenciennes, 1840 |
eclipse parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus scaber
Valenciennes, 1840 |
fivesaddle parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus schlegeli
Bleeker, 1867 |
yellowband parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus spinus
(Kner) |
greensnout parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus taeniopterus
Lesson, 1829 |
princess parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus tricolor
Bleeker, 1847 |
tricolour parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus trispinosus
Valenciennes, 1840 |
greenback parrotfish | .jpg) | |
| Scarus vetula
Bloch & Schneider, 1801 |
queen parrotfish | frameless | frameless |
| Scarus viridifucatus
J.L.B. Smith, 1956 |
roundhead parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus xanthopleura
Bleeker, 1853 |
red parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus zelindae
Moura, Figueiredo & Sazima, 2001 |
Zelinda's parrotfish | frameless | |
| Scarus zufar
Randall & Hoover, 1995 |
Dhofar parrotfish | ||
In political thought
In Cesare Ripa's Renaissance iconography, the scarus fish symbolised civil "Union," i.e. the joining of individuals into a collective body. Plutarch had written that scarus fish "swim together in shoals and ingeniously and heroically free each other when caught in a net." The scarus thus "denoted reciprocal assistance in the fight for survival."[11]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Froese, R. and D. Pauly, Eds. Scarus. FishBase. 2013.
- ↑ "Scarus iseri summary page" (in en). https://fishbase.se/summary/Scarus-iseri.html.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Choat, John. H.; klanten, Oya. S.; Van Herwerden, Lynne; Robertson, D. Ross; Clements, Kendall D. (November 2012). "Patterns and processes in the evolutionary history of parrotfishes (Family Labridae): Evolutionary History of Parrotfishes" (in en). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 107 (3): 529–557. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01959.x. https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01959.x.
- ↑ Smith, Lydia L.; Fessler, Jennifer L.; Alfaro, Michael E.; Streelman, J. Todd; Westneat, Mark W. (October 2008). "Phylogenetic relationships and the evolution of regulatory gene sequences in the parrotfishes" (in en). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 49 (1): 136–152. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.06.008. PMID 18621133. Bibcode: 2008MolPE..49..136S.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Hoey, Andrew S.; Bonaldo, Roberta M. (2018-03-05). Hoey, Andrew S.. ed (in en). Biology of Parrotfishes (1 ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, [2018]| "A Science Publishers book." | Includeu bibliographical references and index.: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781315118079. ISBN 978-1-315-11807-9. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781482224023.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Jones, David Delane; Rivera Hernández, Jesús M.; Shervette, Virginia R. (2021-05-01). "Princess parrotfish Scarus taeniopterus age, growth, maturity, and transition" (in en). Environmental Biology of Fishes 104 (5): 581–595. doi:10.1007/s10641-021-01097-5. ISSN 1573-5133. Bibcode: 2021EnvBF.104..581J. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10641-021-01097-5.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 RANDALL, JOHN E.; CHOAT, J. HOWARD (1980-12-01). "Two new parrotfishes of the genus Scarus from the Central and South Pacific, with further examples of sexual dichromatism". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 70 (4): 383–419. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1980.tb00856.x. ISSN 0024-4082. https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/70/4/383/2658767?redirectedFrom=fulltext.
- ↑ Randall, John E. (1963). "Notes on the Systematics of Parrotfishes (Scaridae), with Emphasis on Sexual Dichromatism". Copeia 1963 (2): 225–237. doi:10.2307/1441337. ISSN 0045-8511.
- ↑ Frydl, Paul (1979). "The Effect of Parrotfish (Scaridae) on Coral in Barbados, W. I" (in en). Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie 64 (6): 737–748. doi:10.1002/iroh.19790640603. ISSN 1522-2632. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/iroh.19790640603.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Freitas, Matheus O.; Previero, Marília; Leite, Jonas R.; Francini-Filho, Ronaldo B.; Minte-Vera, Carolina V.; Moura, Rodrigo L. (2019-08-30). "Age, growth, reproduction and management of Southwestern Atlantic's largest and endangered herbivorous reef fish, Scarus trispinosus Valenciennes, 1840" (in en). PeerJ 7. doi:10.7717/peerj.7459. ISSN 2167-8359. PMID 31531268.
- ↑ Hont, I. Jealousy of Trade: International Competition and the Nation-State in Historical Perspective. Harvard UP: 2005, pp. 21-22.
Wikidata ☰ Q258514 entry
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