Biology:Sexual system

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Short description: Distribution of male and female functions across a species.
Barnacles have a variety of sexual systems.

A sexual system is a pattern of sex allocation[1] or a distribution of male and female function across organisms in a species.[2] Terms like reproductive system and mating system have also been used as synonyms.[3]

The distinction between sexual systems is not always clear due to phenotypic plasticity.[1] Sexual systems are viewed as a key factor for genetic variation and reproductive success, and may have also led to the origin or extinction of certain species.[4]

Interests in sexual systems go back to Darwin, who found that barnacles contain species that are androdioecious and some that are dioecious.[5]

Types of sexual systems

The life cycle of an angiosperm.

In angiosperms there are monomorphic sexual systems where a species has combination of hermaphrodite, male, and/or female flowers on the same plant. Monomorphic sexual systems include monoecy, gynomonoecy, andromonoecy, and trimonoecy. There are also dimorphic sexual systems where individual plants within a species only produce one sort of flower — hermaphrodite, male, or female. Dimorphic sexual systems include dioecy, gynodioecy, androdioecy, and trioecy.[6] Mixed sexual systems are where hermaphrodites coexist with single sexed individuals.[7] This includes androdioecy, gynodioecy, and trioecy.[8]

What determines whether a flower is male, female, or hermaphroditic is the presence of a stamen — which contains male gametes — and/or pistil — which contains female gametes. Male (a.k.a. staminate) flowers only have a stamen. Female (a.k.a. pistillate) flowers only have a pistil. Hermaphrodite (a.k.a. perfect, or bisexual) flowers have both a stamen and pistil. The sex of a single flower may differ from the sex of the whole organism: for example, a plant may have both staminate and pistillate flowers, making the plant as a whole a hermaphrodite. Hence although all monomorphic plants are hermaphrodites, different combinations of flower types (staminate, pistillate, or perfect) produces distinct monomorphic sexual systems.[9]

(See Plant reproductive morphology for further details on plant sexual systems.)

List of sexual systems

Sexual system Description
Androdioecy males and hermaphrodites coexist in a population.[10] It is rare in both plants and animals.[11]
Andromonoecy rare sexual system in angiosperms, in which a plant has both male and hermaphroditic flowers.[12] It has been a subject of interest regarding the mechanism of sex expression.[13]
Dichogamy an individual plant produces either exclusively male or exclusively female flowers at different points in time.[14] It is thought the temporal separation of producing male and female flowers occurs to prevent self-fertilization,[15] however this is debatable as dichogamy occurs in similar frequency among species which are self-compatible and self-incompatible.[16]
Dioicy one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes.[17] In dioicy male and female sex organs are on separate gametophytes.[18]
Dioecy a species has distinct individual organisms that are either male or female, i.e., they produce only male or only female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in plants).[19]
Gonochorism individuals are either male or female.[19]

The term "gonochorism" is usually applied to animals while "dioecy" is applied to plants.[20] Gonochorism is the most common sexual system in animals, occurring in 95% of animal species.[21]

Gynodioecy females and hermaphrodites coexist in the same population.[10]
Gynomonoecy defined as the presence of both female and hermaphrodite flowers on the same individual of a plant species.[22] It is prevalent in Asteraceae but is poorly understood.[23]
Gynodioecy-Gynomonoecy a sexual system for plants when female, hermaphrodite, and gynomonoecious plants coexist in the same population.[24](p360)
Monoicy one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes.[17] In monoicy male and female sex organs are present in the same gametophyte.[18]
Monoecy a sexual system in which male and female flowers are present on the same plant. It is common in angiosperms,[25] and occurs in 10% of all plant species.[26][dubious – discuss]
Sequential hermaphroditism individuals start their adult lives as one sex, and change to the other sex at a later age.[27]
Sequential monoecy a confusing sexual system,[28] in which the combination of male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers presented changes over time.[29] For example, some conifers produce exclusively either male or female cones when young, then both when older.[30] Sequential monoecy can be difficult to differentiate from dioecy.[31] Several alternative terms may be used in reference to sexual systems involving temporal changes to sex presentation of a plant species (e.g. dichogamy, sequential hermaphroditism, sex change, paradioecy, diphasy).[32]
Simultaneous hermaphroditism an individual can produce both gamete types in the same breeding season.[33] Simultaneous hermaphroditism is one of the most common sexual systems in animals (though far less common than gonochorism) and is one of the most stable.[34]
Synoecy all individuals in a population of flowering plants bear solely hermaphrodite flowers.[27]
Trimonoecy (also called androgynomonoecy) is when male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are present on the same plant.[27][35] Triomonoecy is rare.[36]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 (in en) Transitions Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems. Springer. 2019-05-21. pp. 1. ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=0rWZDwAAQBAJ&q=sexual+system. 
  2. ↑ (in en) Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. 4. Academic Press. 2019-01-21. pp. 584. ISBN 978-0-12-813252-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5lnDwAAQBAJ&q=Sexual+Systems+encyclopedia&pg=RA3-PA584. 
  3. ↑ Cardoso, João Custódio Fernandes; Viana, Matheus Lacerda; Matias, Raphael; Furtado, Marco Túlio; Caetano, Ana Paula de Souza; Consolaro, Hélder; Brito, Vinícius Lourenço Garcia de (Jul–Sep 2018). "Towards a unified terminology for angiosperm reproductive systems" (in en). Acta Botanica Brasilica 32 (3): 329–348. doi:10.1590/0102-33062018abb0124. ISSN 0102-3306. 
  4. ↑ "Macroevolutionary synthesis of flowering plant sexual systems". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution 71 (4): 898–912. April 2017. doi:10.1111/evo.13181. PMID 28085192. 
  5. ↑ "Adaptive evolution of sexual systems in pedunculate barnacles". Proceedings. Biological Sciences 279 (1730): 959–66. March 2012. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1554. PMID 21881138. 
  6. ↑ "Where do monomorphic sexual systems fit in the evolution of dioecy? Insights from the largest family of angiosperms". The New Phytologist 190 (1): 234–248. April 2011. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03609.x. PMID 21219336. 
  7. ↑ (in en) The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010-07-19. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-19-532555-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=wmlnDAAAQBAJ&q=Gonochorism+sexual+system. 
  8. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Oyarzún-2020
  9. ↑ Jabbour, Florian; Espinosa, Felipe; Dejonghe, Quentin; Le Péchon, Timothée (2022-01-07). "Development and Evolution of Unisexual Flowers: A Review" (in en). Plants 11 (2): 155. doi:10.3390/plants11020155. ISSN 2223-7747. PMID 35050043. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 (in en) The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press. 2019-10-10. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=AKGsDwAAQBAJ&q=Gynodioecy+the+biology+of+reproduction. 
  11. ↑ (in en) Evolutionary Biology – Concepts, Biodiversity, Macroevolution and Genome Evolution. Springer Science & Business Media. 2011-07-20. pp. 36. ISBN 978-3-642-20763-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=R3-3k5yoRhoC&q=Androdioecy&pg=PA36. 
  12. ↑ "Andromonoecy in an Old World Papilionoid legume, Erophaca baetica". Plant Biology 15 (2): 353–9. March 2013. doi:10.1111/j.1438-8677.2012.00648.x. PMID 22823201. 
  13. ↑ (in en) Functional Plant Ecology. CRC Press. 2007-06-20. pp. 524. ISBN 978-1-4200-0762-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Fqc-_Zv3jIMC&q=Andromonoecious&pg=PA524. 
  14. ↑ Lloyd, David G.; Webb, C. J. (1986-07-01). "The avoidance of interference between the presentation of pollen and stigmas in angiosperms I. Dichogamy" (in en). New Zealand Journal of Botany 24 (1): 135–162. doi:10.1080/0028825X.1986.10409725. ISSN 0028-825X. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0028825X.1986.10409725. 
  15. ↑ Renner, Susanne S. (2014-10-01). "The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems: Dioecy, monoecy, gynodioecy, and an updated online database" (in en). American Journal of Botany 101 (10): 1588–1596. doi:10.3732/ajb.1400196. PMID 25326608. 
  16. ↑ Bertin, Robert I. (1993-05-01). "Incidence of Monoecy and Dichogamy in Relation to Self‐Fertilization in Angiosperms" (in en). American Journal of Botany 80 (5): 557–560. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1993.tb13840.x. PMID 30139145. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1993.tb13840.x. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 (in en) Reproductive Biology of Plants. CRC Press. 2016-04-19. pp. 62. ISBN 978-1-4822-0133-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=qXvSBQAAQBAJ&q=Sexual+systems+in+bryophytes&pg=PA62. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Correlates of monoicy and dioicy in hornworts, the apparent sister group to vascular plants". BMC Evolutionary Biology 13 (1): 239. November 2013. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-239. PMID 24180692. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Gonochorism" (in en). A Dictionary of Genetics. Oxford University Press. 2007. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195307610.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-530761-0. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195307610.001.0001/acref-9780195307610-e-2626. Retrieved 2021-07-28. 
  20. ↑ (in en) Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. 2. Academic Press. 2016-04-14. pp. 212. ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=_r4OCAAAQBAJ&q=gonochorism+usually+applied+to+animals. 
  21. ↑ "Williams' paradox and the role of phenotypic plasticity in sexual systems". Integrative and Comparative Biology 53 (4): 671–88. October 2013. doi:10.1093/icb/ict088. PMID 23970358. 
  22. ↑ "Gynomonoecious". A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. Oxford University Press. 2006. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198608912.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-860891-2. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198608912.001.0001/acref-9780198608912-e-3105. 
  23. ↑ (in en) Plant Genetics and Molecular Breeding. MDPI. 2019-07-11. pp. 442. ISBN 978-3-03921-175-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=pcahDwAAQBAJ&q=Gynomonoecy&pg=PA442. 
  24. ↑ Lüttge, Ulrich; Cánovas, Francisco M.; Matyssek, Rainer (2016-05-27) (in en). Progress in Botany 77. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-25688-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=3mNBDAAAQBAJ&dq=trimonoecy+difference+from+trioecy&pg=PA360. 
  25. ↑ (in en) Jatropha, Challenges for a New Energy Crop: Volume 2: Genetic Improvement and Biotechnology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2012-12-14. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-1-4614-4915-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=TAQMI-ikrvYC&q=monoecy+sexual+system&pg=PA27. 
  26. ↑ (in en) Pollination and Floral Ecology. Princeton University Press. 2011-07-05. pp. 85. ISBN 978-1-4008-3894-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=1_eWTM2_kfcC&q=monoecy+10%25&pg=PA85. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Beentje, Henk (2016). The Kew Plant Glossary (second ed.). Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-604-9. 
  28. ↑ Putz, Francis E.; Mooney, Harold A. (1991) (in en). The Biology of Vines. Cambridge University Press. pp. 411. ISBN 978-0-521-39250-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=D_w8AAAAIAAJ&q=sequential+monoecy&pg=PA411. 
  29. ↑ Flores‐Rentería, Lluvia; Molina‐Freaner, Francisco; Whipple, Amy V.; Gehring, Catherine A.; Domínguez, C. A. (2013-03-01). "Sexual stability in the nearly dioecious Pinus johannis (Pinaceae)" (in en). American Journal of Botany 100 (3): 602–612. doi:10.3732/ajb.1200068. ISSN 0002-9122. PMID 23445824. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.1200068. 
  30. ↑ Kang, Hyesoon (2007-04-01). "Changes in gender expression in korean populations ofPinus densiflora over a five-year period" (in en). Journal of Plant Biology 50 (2): 181–189. doi:10.1007/BF03030628. ISSN 1867-0725. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03030628. 
  31. ↑ Greenwood, Paul J.; Greenwood, Greenwood, Paul John; Harvey, Paul H.; Harvey, Reader in Biology Department of Zoology Paul H.; Slatkin, Montgomery; Slatkin, Professor of Integrative Biology Montgomery; Cambridge, University of (1985-07-11) (in en). Evolution: Essays in Honour of John Maynard Smith. CUP Archive. pp. 240. ISBN 978-0-521-25734-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=nQw5AAAAIAAJ&q=sequential+monoecy&pg=PA240. 
  32. ↑ Windsor, Jon and Lesley Lovett-Doust Professor of Biology the University of (1988-07-07) (in en). Plant Reproductive Ecology : Patterns and Strategies: Patterns and Strategies. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-802192-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Yjv1woP0QtYC&dq=diphasy&pg=PA139. 
  33. ↑ Leonard, Janet L. (2019-05-21) (in en). Transitions Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems. Springer. pp. 14. ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=0rWZDwAAQBAJ&q=Simultaneous+hermaphroditism. 
  34. ↑ (in en) The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010-07-19. pp. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-532555-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=wmlnDAAAQBAJ&q=simultaneous+hermaphroditism+sexual+system. 
  35. ↑ Plants in Action: Adaptation in Nature, Performance in Cultivation. Macmillan Education AU. 1999. pp. 244. ISBN 978-0-7329-4439-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=chWs4ewSzpEC&q=trimonoecy&pg=PT44. 
  36. ↑ "Evidence of trimonoecy in Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus acidus" (in en). Plant Systematics and Evolution 296 (3): 283–286. 2011-08-06. doi:10.1007/s00606-011-0494-3. ISSN 1615-6110. 



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