Biology:Trypanosoma evansi

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Short description: Contagious protist

Trypanosoma evansi
Trypanosoma evansi in blood
Trypanosoma evansi in blood
Scientific classification edit
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Euglenozoa
Class: Kinetoplastea
Order: Trypanosomatida
Family: Trypanosomatidae
Genus: Trypanosoma
Species:
T. evansi
Binomial name
Trypanosoma evansi
(Steel) Chauvrat, 1896
Synonyms[1]

Trypanosoma brucei evansi

Trypanosoma evansi is a parasitic species of excavate trypanosome in the genus Trypanosoma that is one cause of surra in animals.[2] Discovered by Griffith Evans in 1880 at Dera Ismail Khan (British India), it is the first known trypanosome that causes infection. It is a common parasite in India and Iran[3] and causes acute disease in camels and horses, and chronic disease in cattle and buffalo. In Pakistan, it has been found to be the most prevalent trypanosome species in donkeys. It is now established to infect other mammals, including humans.[4][5]

It has been proposed that T. evansi is—like T. equiperdum—a derivative of T. brucei.[6] Due to the loss of part of the mitochondrial (kinetoplast) DNA T. evansi is not capable of infecting tsetse flies, the usual invertebrate vectors of trypanosomes, and establishing the subsequent life-stages.[7][8] Due to its mechanical transmission T. evansi shows a very broad vector specificity including members of the genera Tabanus, Stomoxys, Haematopota, Chrysops and Lyperosia.[9] It rarely causes disease in humans,[10] but human infections are common.[4] Haemoglobin plays a role in trypanolytic host defense against T. evansi.[4]

History

T. evansi was a parasite that caused severe, often fatal, infection in mammals such as horses, donkeys, cattle and camels. In India, where it was prevalent from ancient times, the disease was known as surra.[11] Under the British rule, it caused serious impediment to the British Army, as their horses were infected. In August 1880, Griffith Evans of the Royal Army Service Corps was deployed to investigate the case at army base in Dera Ismail Khan (now in Pakistan). He immediately recognised worm-like parasites from the blood samples of all diseased horses. He reported in 1881:

When I first saw it [the parasite) I thought for a moment it was some form of spirillum [a kind of bacteria], but the next instant convinced me it was not... It has an apparently round body, when it is fresh and active, which tapers in front to a neck ending in a blunt head, and behind it has a tapering tail from which there extends a long slender lash [this now known as the flagella, and is located towards the anterior end, not at the "tail"], so fine that it can seldom be seen... I came to the conclusion that it has two fin-like papillae on each side, one near where the neck commences and another near where the tail begins [now understood to be one undulating membrane, not two, formed by a flagellum].[12]

Griffith experimentally showed that the parasite was the causative pathogen of surra by infecting healthy horses using infected blood.[13] However, the medical authority in British India rejected the idea that the parasite could cause of such disease. Timothy Richards Lewis, Special Assistant to the Sanitary Commissioner, confirmed the parasite but not the connection with the disease. Lewis had discovered a trypanosome (later named Trypanosoma lewisi) of rats in 1878 (reported in 1879).[14] He was convinced that the trypanosome was harmless because he discovered them from only healthy rats. He and David Douglas Cunningham (Professor of Physiology in the Medical College, Calcutta, and Surgeon-General of India), in response to Griffith's observations, officially stated that "no microbe found in the living blood of any animal was pathogenic."[13] It was later recorded in Nature: "Official opinion was strongly against him [Griffith]."[15][16]

Griffith's discovery was independently established. In 1885, J. H. Steel reported from British Burma (now Myanmar) the same parasites he identified from the blood samples of military transport mules. The similarity of the disease and the parasites to those described by Griffith immediately became obvious.[17] However, Steel mistakenly recognised the parasite was as a type of spirochaete bacteria and named it Spirochaeta evansi, in honour of the discoverer.[18] Edgar Crookshank at King's College London correctly identified it as a kind of protozoan renaming it as Haematonomas evansi, but quickly changed it to Trichomonas evansi in 1885. In 1896, French veterinarian J. Chauvrat gave the correct description and the name Trypanosoma evansi.[19] The parasite was then established as the first trypanosome that caused disease (trypanosomiasis).[20]

Human cases

The first human case was reported from Maharashtra, India, in 2005. In 2004, a 45-year-old cattle farmer from Seoni village was hospitalised due to severe fever and disturbed neurological behaviours. Serological, microscopic, and DNA (PCR) test indicated that he was infected with T. evansi.[4][21] The clinical case was confirmed by the World Health Organization.[22] Normally, humans have natural trypanolytic protein called apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) that kills different species of trypanosomes during infection. The individual was diagnosed to lack APOL1.[23] Serological survey in 2006 in the same region revealed that the infection was already prevalent; 5 to 22% of the population, based on different tests, were found to be positive for T. evansi.[24][25] Outside India, the first human cases were reported from Egypt in 2011.[26][27] A single case was reported from Vietnam in 2016 in which an infected 38-year-old woman had normal APOL1, indicating that lack of APOL1 is not the primary reason for human infectivity.[25][28]

Treatment

Suramin is recommended.[29] Isometamidium chloride is ineffective.[29]

Trypanocide resistance

Trypanosoma evansi trypanocide resistance is widespread.[4] Diminazene aceturate is often ineffective for bovine, equine, porcine, and elephant use in Thailand.[4] Quinapyramine is not recommended for cattle use due to its tendency to produce cross-resistance with both diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride.[4] Quinapyramine is recommended for equine and camel use only.[4] For the Philippines blanket treatment of all affected livestock is recommended, while biannual treatment of an individual village's livestock might be more financially realistic but risks developing resistance.[4]

Range

Trypanosoma evansi is rapidly expanding its geographic range.[29] It was historically restricted to Africa but for centuries it has been found in North-East Africa, South Asia, most of East Asia and Latin America.[29] It was first detected in the Canary Islands in 1997 and since 2010 has been imported into Europe, in Germany , France and mainland Spain.[29]

References

  1. ↑ Giordani, Federica; Morrison, Liam J.; Rowan, TIM G.; De Koning, Harry P.; Barrett, Michael P. (2016). "The animal trypanosomiases and their chemotherapy: A review". Parasitology 143 (14): 1862–1889. doi:10.1017/s0031182016001268. PMID 27719692. 
  2. ↑
    Aregawi, Weldegebrial G.; Agga, Getahun E.; Abdi, Reta D.; Büscher, Philippe (January 2019). "Systematic review and meta-analysis on the global distribution, host range, and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi". Parasites & Vectors 12 (1): 67. doi:10.1186/s13071-019-3311-4. PMID 30704516. 
    This review cites this research.
    "First report of surra (Trypanosoma evansi infection) in a Tunisian dog". Parasite 22: 3. 2015. doi:10.1051/parasite/2015004. PMID 25654368.  open access
  3. ↑ "Parasitic diseases of camels in Iran (1931-2017) - a literature review". Parasite (EDP Sciences) 24: 21. 2017. doi:10.1051/parasite/2017024. ISSN 1776-1042. PMID 28617666.  open access
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
    This review is cited by Giordani et al., 2016, Baldacchino et al., 2014, Berninger et al., 2017, Antonovics et al., 2017, Auty et al., 2015, Cnops et al., 2014 and others.
    "Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on transmission, epidemiology and control, impact, and zoonotic aspects". BioMed Research International 2013: 321237. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/321237. PMID 24151595. 
  5. ↑
    Habila, Nathan; Inuwa, Mairo H.; Aimola, Idowu A.; Udeh, Michael U.; Haruna, Emmanuel (2012). "Pathogenic mechanisms of Trypanosoma evansi infections". Research in Veterinary Science (Elsevier BV) 93 (1): 13–17. doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.08.011. Association for Veterinary Teaching and Research Work (AVTRW). ISSN 0034-5288. PMID 21940025. 
    This review cites this research.
    "Susceptibility of Trypanosoma evansi to human blood and plasma in infected mice". Veterinary Parasitology 168 (1–2): 1–4. February 2010. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.10.020. PMID 19939570. 
  6. ↑
    Giordani, Federica; Morrison, Liam J.; Rowan, TIM G.; De Koning, Harry P.; Barrett, Michael P. (2016). "The animal trypanosomiases and their chemotherapy: A review". Parasitology 143 (14): 1862–1889. doi:10.1017/s0031182016001268. PMID 27719692. 
    Field, Mark C.; Carrington, Mark (2009). "The trypanosome flagellar pocket". Nature Reviews Microbiology (Nature Portfolio) 7 (11): 775–786. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2221. ISSN 1740-1526. PMID 19806154. 
    Engstler, Markus (2008), Faculty Opinions recommendation of Adaptations of Trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast DNA: Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi' are petite mutants of T. brucei, Faculty Opinions Ltd, doi:10.3410/f.1101182.557184 
    This review is cited by Giordani et al., 2016, Baldacchino et al., 2014, Berninger et al., 2017, Antonovics et al., 2017, Auty et al., 2015, Cnops et al., 2014 and others: "Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on transmission, epidemiology and control, impact, and zoonotic aspects". BioMed Research International 2013: 321237. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/321237. PMID 24151595. 
    Tielens, Aloysius G.M.; van Hellemond, Jaap J. (2009). "Surprising variety in energy metabolism within Trypanosomatidae". Trends in Parasitology (Cell Press) 25 (10): 482–490. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2009.07.007. ISSN 1471-4922. PMID 19748317. 
    These reviews cite this research.
    "Adaptations of Trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast DNA: Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi are petite mutants of T. brucei". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (6): 1999–2004. February 2008. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711799105. PMID 18245376. Bibcode: 2008PNAS..105.1999L. 
  7. ↑ "Kinetoplast DNA of Trypanosoma evansi". Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 23 (1): 31–38. February 1987. doi:10.1016/0166-6851(87)90184-8. PMID 3033499. 
  8. ↑ The trypanosomes of the Mammals. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 1972. 
  9. ↑ "Trypanosoma evansi in Asia". Parasitology Today 4 (5): 137–142. May 1988. doi:10.1016/0169-4758(88)90188-3. PMID 15463067. (and references therein)
  10. ↑ "A rare case of human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi". Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 24 (1): 72–74. January 2006. doi:10.4103/0255-0857.19904. PMID 16505565. 
  11. ↑ "Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on origin, history, distribution, taxonomy, morphology, hosts, and pathogenic effects". BioMed Research International 2013: 194176. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/194176. PMID 24024184. 
  12. ↑ "On a Horse Disease in India Known as "Surra," Probably Due to a Hæmatozoon" (in en). The Veterinary Journal and Annals of Comparative Pathology 13 (9): 180–200. 1881. doi:10.1016/S2543-3377(17)43154-2. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2543337717431542. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". Pulmonary Circulation 10 (1): 1–16. 1918-07-25. doi:10.1080/00034983.1918.11684153. PMID 32166015. 
  14. ↑ "Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". Pulmonary Circulation 10 (1): 109–114. 1879. doi:10.1242/jcs.s2-19.73.109. PMID 32166015. 
  15. ↑ "Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". Pulmonary Circulation 10 (1): 172–173. 1935. doi:10.1038/136172a0. PMID 32166015. 
  16. ↑ "Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". Pulmonary Circulation 10 (1): 942–943. 1935. doi:10.1038/136942a0. PMID 32166015. 
  17. ↑ "Report of veterinary surgeon JH Steel, AVD, on his investigation into an obscure and fatal disease among transport mules in British Burma, which he found to be a fever of relapsing type, and probably identical with the disorder first described by Dr. Griffith Evans under the name" Surra", in a report (herewith reprinted)" (in en). The Veterinary Journal (London: Punjab Government, Military Department, No. 439-4467). 3 December 1880. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/hqve8a9f. Retrieved 2022-11-23. 
  18. ↑ "Surra and the Emergence of Tropical Veterinary Medicine in Colonial India" (in en). Animal Labor and Colonial Warfare. University of Chicago Press. 2018. pp. 218–249. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226562315.003.0009. ISBN 978-0-226-56228-5. https://www.bibliovault.org/BV.landing.epl?ISBN=9780226562315. 
  19. ↑ "Dr. Griffith's Evan's 100th birthday". British Medical Journal 2 (3893): 313–314. 1935. ISSN 0007-1447. 
  20. ↑ "Dr. Griffith Evan's Hundredth Birthday". Canadian Medical Association Journal 33 (4): 430–431. October 1935. PMID 20320047. 
  21. ↑ "Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India: the first case report". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73 (3): 491–495. September 2005. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2005.73.491. PMID 16172469. 
  22. ↑ "A new form of human trypanosomiasis in India. Description of the first human case in the world caused by Trypanosoma evansi". Relevé Épidémiologique Hebdomadaire 80 (7): 62–63. February 2005. PMID 15771199. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15771199. 
  23. ↑ "Human Trypanosoma evansi infection linked to a lack of apolipoprotein L-I". The New England Journal of Medicine 355 (26): 2752–2756. December 2006. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa063265. PMID 17192540. 
  24. ↑ "Short report: Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in a village in India: preliminary serologic survey of the local population". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75 (5): 869–870. November 2006. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2006.75.869. PMID 17123979. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Systematic review and meta-analysis on the global distribution, host range, and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi". Parasites & Vectors 12 (1): 67. January 2019. doi:10.1186/s13071-019-3311-4. PMID 30704516. 
  26. ↑
    Giordani, Federica; Morrison, Liam J.; Rowan, TIM G.; De Koning, Harry P.; Barrett, Michael P. (2016). "The animal trypanosomiases and their chemotherapy: A review". Parasitology 143 (14): 1862–1889. doi:10.1017/s0031182016001268. PMID 27719692. 
    This review cites this research.
    "Trypanosoma evansi in dromedary camel: with a case report of zoonosis in greater Cairo, Egypt". Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 41 (1): 65–76. April 2011. PMID 21634243. 
  27. ↑ "Salivarian Trypanosomosis: A Review of Parasites Involved, Their Global Distribution and Their Interaction With the Innate and Adaptive Mammalian Host Immune System". Frontiers in Immunology 9: 2253. 2018. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02253. PMID 30333827. 
  28. ↑ "A Clinical and Epidemiological Investigation of the First Reported Human Infection With the Zoonotic Parasite Trypanosoma evansi in Southeast Asia". Clinical Infectious Diseases 62 (8): 1002–1008. April 2016. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw052. PMID 26908809. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4
    This review is cited by De Rycker et al., 2022, Melfi et al., 2023, Hofer 2023:
    Kasozi, Keneth Iceland; MacLeod, Ewan Thomas; Ntulume, Ibrahim; Welburn, Susan Christina (2022). "An Update on African Trypanocide Pharmaceutics and Resistance". Frontiers in Veterinary Science (Frontiers Media SA) 9: 828111. doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.828111. ISSN 2297-1769. PMID 35356785. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q149264 entry



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