Chemistry:Saturated fat

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Short description: Fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds

Types of fat]]s in food
See also

A saturated fat is a type of fat: a glyceride in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds between the carbon atoms (i.e. an alkane). Glyceride fats with single bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen.[1]

Saturated fats are generally solid at room temperature.[2] All fats, both saturated and unsaturated, contain 9kcal per gram, making them more energy dense than both proteins and carbohydrates.[3]

Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated.[1] Various foods contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated. Many processed foods, like foods deep-fried in hydrogenated oil and sausages, are high in saturated fat content. Some store-bought baked goods are as well, especially those containing partially hydrogenated oils.[4][5][6] Other examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat and dietary cholesterol include animal fat products such as lard or schmaltz, fatty meats and dairy products made with whole or reduced fat milk like yogurt, ice cream, cheese and butter.[7] Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.[8]

Guidelines released by many medical organizations, including the World Health Organization, have advocated for reduction in the intake of saturated fat to promote health and reduce the risk from cardiovascular diseases.

Saturated fatty acids that comprise saturated fat

Main article: Chemistry:List of saturated fatty acids

Some common examples of saturated fatty acids:

While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., palm kernel, coconut) and dairy products. The saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids.

Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of total fat[9]
Food Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid
Coconut oil 47% 18% 9% 3%
Palm kernel oil 48% 1% 44% 5%
Butter 3% 11% 29% 13%
Ground beef 0% 4% 26% 15%
Salmon 0% 1% 29% 3%
Egg yolks 0% 0.3% 27% 10%
Cashews 2% 1% 10% 7%
Soybean oil 0% 0% 11% 4%
Cocoa butter[10] 1% 0–4% 24.5–33.7% 33.7–40.2%

Proportions of saturated fat in foods

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Food Saturated Mono-
unsaturated		 Poly-
unsaturated
As weight percent (%) of total fat
Cooking oils
Algal oil[11] 04 92 04
Canola[12] 08 64 28
Coconut oil 87 13 00
Corn oil 13 24 59
Cottonseed oil[12] 27 19 54
Olive oil[13] 14 73 11
Palm kernel oil[12] 86 12 02
Palm oil[12] 51 39 10
Peanut oil[14] 17 46 32
Rice bran oil 25 38 37
Safflower oil, high oleic[15] 06 75 14
Safflower oil, linoleic[12][16] 06 14 75
Soybean oil 15 24 58
Sunflower oil[17] 11 20 69
Mustard oil 11 59 21
Dairy products
Butterfat[12] 66 30 04
Cheese, regular 64 29 03
Cheese, light 60 30 00
Ice cream, gourmet 62 29 04
Ice cream, light 62 29 04
Milk, whole 62 28 04
Milk, 2% 62 30 00
*Whipping cream[18] 66 26 05
Meats
Beef 33 38 05
Ground sirloin 38 44 04
Pork chop 35 44 08
Ham 35 49 16
Chicken breast 99 34 21
Chicken 34 23 30
Turkey breast 30 20 30
Turkey drumstick 32 22 30
Fish, orange roughy 23 15 46
Salmon 28 33 28
Hot dog, beef 42 48 05
Hot dog, turkey 28 40 22
Burger, fast food 36 44 06
Cheeseburger, fast food 43 40 07
Breaded chicken sandwich 20 39 32
Grilled chicken sandwich 26 42 20
Sausage, Polish 37 46 11
Sausage, turkey 28 40 22
Pizza, sausage 41 32 20
Pizza, cheese 60 28 05
Nuts
Almonds dry roasted 09 65 21
Cashews dry roasted 20 59 17
Macadamia dry roasted 15 79 02
Peanut dry roasted 14 50 31
Pecans dry roasted 08 62 25
Flaxseeds, ground 08 23 65
Sesame seeds 14 38 44
Soybeans 14 22 57
Sunflower seeds 11 19 66
Walnuts dry roasted 09 23 63
Sweets and baked goods
Candy, chocolate bar 59 33 03
Candy, fruit chews 14 44 38
Cookie, oatmeal raisin 22 47 27
Cookie, chocolate chip 35 42 18
Cake, yellow 60 25 10
Pastry, Danish 50 31 14
Fats added during cooking or at the table
Butter, stick 63 29 03
Butter, whipped 62 29 04
Margarine, stick 18 39 39
Margarine, tub 16 33 49
Margarine, light tub 19 46 33
Lard 39 45 11
Shortening 25 45 26
Chicken fat 30 45 21
Beef fat 41 43 03
Goose fat[19] 33 55 11
Dressing, blue cheese 16 54 25
Dressing, light Italian 14 24 58
Other
Egg yolk fat[20] 36 44 16
Avocado[21] 16 71 13
Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is:[22]
* 3% is trans fats

Association with diseases

Cardiovascular disease

See also: Cardiovascular disease § Diet

The effect of saturated fat on heart disease has been extensively studied.[23][24] Saturated fat intake increases low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations.[24][25] The American Heart Association have stated that "the scientific rationale for decreasing saturated fat in the diet has been and remains based on well-established effects of saturated fat to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, a leading cause of atherosclerosis".[25]

Many health authorities, such as the American Heart Association,[25] the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,[26] the British Dietetic Association,[27] the World Heart Federation,[28] the British National Health Service,[29] among others,[30][31] advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. In 2020, the World Health Organization recommended lowering dietary intake of saturated fats to less than 10% of total energy consumption, and increasing intake of unsaturated fats.[32] There is moderate-quality evidence that reducing the proportion of saturated fat in the diet and replacing it with unsaturated fats or carbohydrates for a period of at least two years leads to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease.[23]

A 2017 review by the Sax Institute for the National Heart Foundation of Australia found that saturated fat consumption is associated with higher mortality and that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat decreases risk of cardiovascular disease events and mortality.[33] In 2019, the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition concluded that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with raised blood cholesterol and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[34][35]

A 2021 review found that diets high in saturated fat were associated with higher mortality from all causes, as well as from cardiovascular disease.[36]

A 2023 review by the World Health Organization found convincing evidence that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with higher coronary heart disease incidence and mortality.[37]

A 2023 review by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics found moderate certainty evidence to support reducing saturated fat intake for reduced risk of CVD and CVD events.[38]

A scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 found that partial replacement of saturated fatty acid with omega-6 fatty acid decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and improves the blood lipid profile.[39]

A 2024 meta-analysis found that odd-chain and longer-chain saturated fatty acids were negatively associated with the risk of cardiovascular disease, including stroke.[40]

Dyslipidemia

See also: Biology:Lipid hypothesis

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease.[41][42][43][44][45]

Abnormal blood lipid levels – high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol – are associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.[28]

Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels.[25][46] High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[47][48]

There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in cardiovascular disease. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[49] There is strong evidence that lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids raise LDL-C, while stearic acid is more neutral.[50]

Type 2 diabetes

A 2022 review of cohort studies found that the risk of type 2 diabetes was not associated with dietary intake of total saturated fats, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. Dietary lauric acid and myristic acid in particular, present in some tropical plant oils and also in dairy fat, were associated with reduced risk of diabetes.[51]

Cancer

Several reviews of case–control studies have found that saturated fat intake is associated with breast cancer risk and mortality.[52][53][54] Observational studies have shown that a diet high in saturated fat is associated with increased prostate cancer risk.[55]

A 2024 systematic review found that higher levels of myristic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid are associated with increased cancer risk.[56]

Dietary sources

Template:Vegetable oils, composition

Dietary recommendations

Recommendations to reduce, limit or replace dietary intake of trans fats and saturated fats, in favor of unsaturated fats, are made by the World Health Organization,[lower-alpha 1] American Heart Association,[25] Health Canada,[57] the US Department of Health and Human Services,[58] the UK National Health Service,[59] the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition,[34] the Australian Department of Health and Aging,[60] the Singapore Ministry of Health,[61] the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,[62] the New Zealand Ministry of Health,[63] and Hong Kong's Department of Health.[64]

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert consultation report concluded:[65]

The evidence shows that intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk. The traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level of intake. Within these limits, the intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5 kg/m2). The amount and quality of fat supply have to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy requirements. Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may be an important source of energy for the poor.

A 2004 statement released by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determined that "Americans need to continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…"[66] In addition, reviews by the American Heart Association led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its 2006 recommendations.[67][68] This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US Department of Health and Human Services, which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.[69]

The United Kingdom, National Health Service claims the majority of British people eat too much saturated fat. The British Heart Foundation also advises people to cut down on saturated fat, and to read labels on the food they buy.[70][71] The British Nutrition Foundation have said that based on the totality of available evidence the saturated fatty acids should make up no more than 10% of total dietary energy.[72]

A 2004 review stated that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[73]

Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates. Concern was expressed over the health risks of replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease, particularly at the expense of polyunsaturated fats which may have health benefits. None of the panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall dietary quality to cardiovascular health.[74]

In a 2017 comprehensive review of the literature and clinical trials, the American Heart Association published a recommendation that saturated fat intake be reduced or replaced by products containing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, a dietary adjustment that could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.[25]

Molecular description

Two-dimensional representation of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid
A space-filling model of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid

The two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogen atoms bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the myristic acid molecule (there are 13 carbon atoms in the tail; 14 carbon atoms in the entire molecule).

Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as intersections between two straight lines. "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ See the article Food pyramid (nutrition) for more information.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Reece, Jane; Campbell, Neil (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-8053-6624-2. https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69. 
  2. ↑ "The science of nutrition and healthy eating" (in en). https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=72175&section=3#:~:text=These%20fat%20molecules%20are%20technically,oils%20(with%20bent%20tails).. 
  3. ↑ "Facts about saturated fats: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia" (in en). https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000838.htm. 
  4. ↑ "Saturated fats". American Heart Association. 2014. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Saturated-Fats_UCM_301110_Article.jsp. 
  5. ↑ "Top food sources of saturated fat in the US". Harvard University School of Public Health. 2014. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/top-food-sources-of-saturated-fat-in-the-us/. 
  6. ↑ "Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans Fats". choosemyplate.gov. 2020. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/node/5664. 
  7. ↑ "Saturated Fat". American Heart Association. 2020. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/fats/saturated-fats. 
  8. ↑ "What are "oils"?". ChooseMyPlate.gov, US Department of Agriculture. 2015. http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html. 
  9. ↑ "USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20". United States Department of Agriculture. 2007. https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md-bhnrc/beltsville-human-nutrition-research-center/methods-and-application-of-food-composition-laboratory/. 
  10. ↑ Kumar, Vijay (2014). "Cocoa Butter and its Alternatives". Journal of Bioresource Engineering and Technology 1: 7–17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308523494. 
  11. ↑ "Thrive Culinary Algae Oil". https://www.thrivealgae.com/our-product/. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 "Fatty acid composition of fats and oils". Colorado Springs: University of Colorado, Department of Chemistry. http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/danderso/fats_oils.pdf. Retrieved April 8, 2017. 
  13. ↑ "NDL/FNIC Food Composition Database Home Page". United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/. Retrieved May 21, 2013. 
  14. ↑ "Basic Report: 04042, Oil, peanut, salad or cooking". USDA. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/634?fg=Fats+and+Oils&man=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=25&offset=&sort=&qlookup=. 
  15. ↑ "Oil, vegetable safflower, oleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/574/2. 
  16. ↑ "Oil, vegetable safflower, linoleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/573/2. 
  17. ↑ "Oil, vegetable, sunflower". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. http://nutritiondata.com/facts/fats-and-oils/572/2. 
  18. ↑ USDA Basic Report Cream, fluid, heavy whipping
  19. ↑ "Nutrition And Health". The Goose Fat Information Service. http://www.goosefat.co.uk/page/nutrition-and-health. 
  20. ↑ "Egg, yolk, raw, fresh". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/dairy-and-egg-products/113/2. 
  21. ↑ "09038, Avocados, raw, California". National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2235. Retrieved 14 August 2014. 
  22. ↑ "Feinberg School > Nutrition > Nutrition Fact Sheet: Lipids". Northwestern University. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20110720014201/nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/lipids.html. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Hooper, Lee; Martin, Nicole; Jimoh, Oluseyi F.; Kirk, Christian; Foster, Eve; Abdelhamid, Asmaa S. (21 August 2020). "Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020 (8). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub3. PMID 32827219. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Feingold, Kenneth R. (2024). The Effect of Diet on Cardiovascular Disease and Lipid and Lipoprotein Levels. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570127/. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 "Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association". Circulation 136 (3): e1–e23. July 2017. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510. PMID 28620111. 
  26. ↑ "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107 (9): 1599–1611 [1603]. September 2007. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.024. PMID 17936958. 
  27. ↑ "Food Fact Sheet - Cholesterol". British Dietetic Association. https://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/cholesterol.pdf. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors". World Heart Federation. 30 May 2017. http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors. 
  29. ↑ "Fat: the facts". National Health Service. 14 April 2020. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/food-types/different-fats-nutrition/. 
  30. ↑ "Nutrition Facts at a Glance – Nutrients: Saturated Fat". Food and Drug Administration. 22 December 2009. https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm. 
  31. ↑ "Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol". European Food Safety Authority. 25 March 2010. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1461. 
  32. ↑ "Healthy diet: key facts". World Health Organization. 29 April 2020. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet. 
  33. ↑ "Evidence Check: Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease". saxinstitute.org. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Saturated Fats and Health". Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN).. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/814995/SACN_report_on_saturated_fat_and_health.pdf. 
  35. ↑ "SACN's 'Saturated fats and health' Report". https://www.nutritionsociety.org/events/sacns-saturated-fats-and-health-report. 
  36. ↑ Kim, Y; Youjin, J; Giovannucii, EL (2021). "Association between dietary fat intake and mortality from all-causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies". Clinical Nutrition 40 (3): 1060–1070. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.007. PMID 32723506. 
  37. ↑ "Saturated fat and trans-fat intakes and their replacement with other macronutrients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies". World Health Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
  38. ↑ "Saturated Fat Intake and the Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults: An Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Evidence-based Nutrition Practice Guideline". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics S2212-2672 (23): 01285–6. 2023. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2023.07.017. PMID 37482268. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212267223012856. 
  39. ↑ Retterstøl K, Rosqvist F. (2024). "Fat and fatty acids – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023". Food Nutr Res 68. doi:10.29219/fnr.v68.9980. PMID 38327998. PMC 10845901. https://foodandnutritionresearch.net/index.php/fnr/article/view/9980. 
  40. ↑ "Association of circulating fatty acids with cardiovascular disease risk: Analysis of individual-level data in three large prospective cohorts and updated meta-analysis". European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. October 2024. doi:10.1093/eurjpc/zwae315. PMID 39365172. PMC 11832215. https://academic.oup.com/eurjpc/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurjpc/zwae315/7810960. 
  41. ↑ "Position Statement on Fat". http://www.fph.org.uk/uploads/ps_fat.pdf. 
  42. ↑ "Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases". World Health Organization. 2003. https://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf. 
  43. ↑ "Cholesterol". Irish Heart Foundation. http://www.irishheart.ie/iopen24/cholesterol-t-7_20_87.html. 
  44. ↑ Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 (7th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. December 2010. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf. 
  45. ↑ Cannon C, O'Gara P, ed (2007). Critical Pathways in Cardiovascular Medicine (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-7817-9439-8. 
  46. ↑ "Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 314 (7074): 112–7. 1997. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112. PMID 9006469. 
  47. ↑ "Systematic review on the risk and benefit of different cholesterol-lowering interventions". Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 19 (2): 187–195. February 1999. doi:10.1161/01.atv.19.2.187. PMID 9974397. 
  48. ↑ "Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths". Lancet 370 (9602): 1829–39. December 2007. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4. PMID 18061058. 
  49. ↑ "Fatty acids and atherosclerotic risk". Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 170. Springer. 2005. pp. 165–94. doi:10.1007/3-540-27661-0_5. ISBN 978-3-540-22569-0. 
  50. ↑ Gropper, Sareen S. (2018). Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism (Seventh ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-305-62785-7. 
  51. ↑ Gaeini, Zahra; Bahadoran, Zahra; Mirmiran, Parvin (3 September 2022). "Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: An Updated Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies". Advances in Nutrition 13 (6): 2125–2135. doi:10.1093/advances/nmac071. PMID 36056919. 
  52. ↑ Xia, H; Ma, S; Wang, S; Sun, G. (2015). "Meta-Analysis of Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Breast Cancer Risk". Medicine 94 (52). doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000002391. PMID 26717389. 
  53. ↑ Brennan, SF; Woodside, JV; Lunny, PM; Cardwell, CR; Cantwell, MM. (2017). "Dietary fat and breast cancer mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 57 (10): 1999–2008. doi:10.1080/10408398.2012.724481. PMID 25692500. https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/dietary-fat-and-breast-cancer-mortality-a-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis(d733bb2c-2e38-494e-bb66-03b38759e0c2).html. 
  54. ↑ Dandamudi, A; Tommie, J; Nommsen-Rivers, L; Couch, S. (2018). "Dietary Patterns and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review". Anticancer Research 38 (6): 3209–3222. doi:10.21873/anticanres.12586. PMID 29848668. 
  55. ↑ Gathirua-Mwangi, Wambui G.; Zhang, Jianjun (2014). "Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer". European Journal of Cancer Prevention 23 (2): 96–109. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0b013e3283647394. PMID 23872953. 
  56. ↑ "Association of saturated fatty acids with cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Lipids in Health and Disease 23 (1). 2024. doi:10.1186/s12944-024-02025-z. PMID 38291432. PMC 10826095. https://lipidworld.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12944-024-02025-z. 
  57. ↑ "Choosing foods with healthy fats". Health Canada. 10 October 2018. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/make-it-a-habit-to-eat-vegetables-fruit-whole-grains-and-protein-foods/choosing-foods-with-healthy-fats/. 
  58. ↑ "Cut Down on Saturated Fats". United States Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/resources/DGA_Cut-Down-On-Saturated-Fats.pdf. 
  59. ↑ "Fat: the facts". 27 April 2018. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/different-fats-nutrition/. 
  60. ↑ "Fat". Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council and Department of Health and Ageing. 24 September 2012. https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat. 
  61. ↑ "Getting the Fats Right!". Singapore's Ministry of Health. https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/458/Getting%20the%20Fats%20Right. 
  62. ↑ "Health Diet". India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. https://www.nhp.gov.in/healthlyliving/healthy-diet. 
  63. ↑ "Making healthier food choices". New Zealand's Ministry of Health. https://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/healthy-living/food-activity-and-sleep/healthy-eating/making-healthier-food-choices. 
  64. ↑ "Know More about Fat". Hong Kong's Department of Health. https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/static/100023.html. 
  65. ↑ Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (WHO technical report series 916). World Health Organization. 2003. pp. 81–94. ISBN 978-92-4-120916-8. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf. Retrieved 4 April 2016. 
  66. ↑ "Trends in Intake of Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat, and Saturated Fat — United States, 1971–2000". Centers for Disease Control. 2004. https://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2. 
  67. ↑ "Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee". Circulation 114 (1): 82–96. July 2006. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158. PMID 16785338. 
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  69. ↑ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans". United States Department of Agriculture. 2005. https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf. 
  70. ↑ "Eat less saturated fat". Nhs.uk. 26 March 2020. http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/Eat-less-saturated-fat.aspx. 
  71. ↑ "Fats explained". https://www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/preventing-heart-disease/healthy-eating/fats-explained. 
  72. ↑ "Fat" (in en). https://www.nutrition.org.uk/healthy-sustainable-diets/fat/?level=Health%2520professional. 
  73. ↑ "Saturated fats: what dietary intake?". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80 (3): 550–559. September 2004. doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.3.550. PMID 15321792. 
  74. ↑ Zelman, K (2011). "The Great Fat Debate: A Closer Look at the Controversy—Questioning the Validity of Age-Old Dietary Guidance". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 111 (5): 655–658. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.026. PMID 21515106. 



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