Engineering:Intermittent water supply

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Short description: Continuity of water less than 24 hours a day


A piped water supply and distribution system is intermittent when water continuity is for less than 24 hours a day or not on all days of the week.[1][2] During this continuity defining factors are water pressure and equity.[3][4] At least 45 countries have intermittent water supply (IWS) systems.[5] It is contrasted with a continuous or "24/7" water supply, the service standard.[6][7] No system is intentionally designed to be intermittent, but they may become that way because of system overexpansion, leakage and other factors.[8][9] As of 2022, there was no feasible method for modelling IWS, including no computer-aided tools.[1] Contamination issues can be associated with an intermittent water distribution system.[10] Global public health impact includes millions of cases of infections and diarrhea, and 1560 deaths annually.[11]

A continuous supply is not practical in all situations.[3] In the short term, an IWS may have some benefits.[12] These may include addressing demand with a limited supply in a more economical manner.[13] An intermittent supply may be temporary (e.g., when water reserves are low) or permanent (e.g., where the piped system cannot sustain a continuous supply).[6] Associated factors resulting from an intermittent supply include water extraction by users at the same time, resulting in low pressure and a possible higher peak demand.[14]

Prevalence

A large share of water supply systems around the world are intermittent; in other words, intermittent water supply is a norm.[15][16] About 1.3 billion people have a piped supply that is intermittent, including large populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.[1][14] This does not include those who do not get piped water at all, about 2.7 billion people.[1] Countries with intermittent supply in some areas and continuous supply in others include India[17] and South Africa.[18] In India, various cities are at various stages of constructing 24/7 supply systems, such as Chandigarh,[19] Delhi,[20] Shimla,[21] and Coimbatore.[22] In Cambodia, Phnom Penh increased coverage from 25% to 85% and duration from 10 to 24 hours a day between 1993 and 2004.[23]

Storage

Installation of storage and pumps at residences may offset the intermittency of the water supply.[6] Roof tanks are a common feature in countries where the water supply is intermittent.[24] In Jordan, most houses have one or more ground or roof tanks. An intermittent supply can be supplemented with other non-piped sources such as packaged drinking and cooking water bought from local shops or delivered to the house.[25]

See also

References

Bibliography
Citations
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Sarisen, Dondu; Koukoravas, Vasilis; Farmani, Raziyeh; Kapelan, Zoran; Memon, Fayyaz Ali (2022-12-01). "Review of hydraulic modelling approaches for intermittent water supply systems" (in en). Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua 71 (12): 1291–1310. doi:10.2166/aqua.2022.028. ISSN 0003-7214. https://iwaponline.com/aqua/article/71/12/1291/92019/Review-of-hydraulic-modelling-approaches-for.  open access (Open access)
  2. ↑ Taylor 2018, p. 25, 32.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Vairavamoorthy, Kala; Elango, K. (2002). "Guidelines for the design and control of intermittent water distribution systems". Waterlines 21 (1): 19–21. doi:10.3362/0262-8104.2002.041. https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Vairavamoorthy-2002-Guidelines.pdf.  Free to read (Free to read)
  4. ↑ Nishimura, Érica; Roma, Woodrow (2018). "The lack of standard definition for intermittent water supply system: An overview of definitions used in the literature and by Brazilian Regulatory Agencies". Revista de Gestão de Água da América Latina 15 (1): 9. doi:10.21168/rega.v15e9. http://www.abrh.org.br/SGCv3/index.php?PUB=2&ID=201&SUMARIO=5331.  Free to read (Free to read)
  5. ↑ Kumpel 2013, p. 1. cited to : van den Berg, C. and A. Danilenko (2011). The IBNET Water Supply and Sanitation Performance Blue Book: The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Databook. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Laspidou, Chrysi; Spyropoulou, Alexandra; Charalambous, Bambos (2017). "1". in Charalambous, Bambos (in en). Dealing with the Complex Interrelation of Intermittent Supply and Water Losses. Scientific and Technical Report No. 25. IWA Publishing. pp. xxv, 1–3. ISBN 978-1-78040-706-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_rktDwAAQBAJ.  Template:Limited access (Limited pages accessible, free registration required for complete access.)
  7. ↑ Ray, I.; Billava, N.; Burt, Z.; Colford, J. M.; Ercümen, A.; Jayaramu, K. P.; Kumpel, E.; Nayak, N. et al. (2018). "From Intermittent to Continuous Water Supply A Household-level Evaluation of Water System Reforms in Hubli–Dharwad" (in en). Economic and Political Weekly 53 (49): 39–48. ISSN 0012-9976. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1qt9t6gq.  open access (Open access)
  8. ↑ Kumpel 2013, p. 7. To our knowledge, no systems have been intentionally designed to provide intermittent supply ... the system became limited by excessive leakages and/or unchecked network expansion.
  9. ↑ McIntosh, Arthur C. (2014). Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in Southeast Asia. A Guide to Good Practice. Philippines: Asian Development Bank. p. 37. ISBN 978-92-9254-555-0. https://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/adb_urban_water_supply_and_sanitation_in_southeast_asia_a_guide_to_good_practice_2014.pdf. "The primary cause of intermittent water supply is the extension of distribution systems beyond their hydraulic capacity to provide service to more customers."  Free to read (Free to read)
  10. ↑ Dubasik, Frank B. (2017). Planning for intermittent water supply in small gravity-fed distribution systems: Case study in rural Panama (Master of Science in Environmental Engineering thesis). Houghton, Michigan: Michigan Technological University. doi:10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/498. pp. 3. Free to read (Free to read)
  11. ↑ Taylor 2018, p. 24. cited to Bivins, Aaron W.; Sumner, Trent; Kumpel, Emily; Howard, Guy; Cumming, Oliver; Ross, Ian; Nelson, Kara; Brown, Joe (2017). "Estimating Infection Risks and the Global Burden of Diarrheal Disease Attributable to Intermittent Water Supply Using QMRA" (in en). Environmental Science & Technology 51 (13): 7542–7551. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b01014. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 28582618. Bibcode: 2017EnST...51.7542B. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.7b01014. 
  12. ↑ Irving, Tyler (July 9, 2019). "U of T researcher proposes new model to analyze world's 'intermittent' water systems" (in en). https://www.utoronto.ca/news/u-t-researcher-proposes-new-model-analyze-world-s-intermittent-water-systems.  open access (Open access)
  13. ↑ Tong, Yan; Fan, Liangxin; Niu, Haipeng (2022). "Identification of pathways that lead to continuous or intermittent water supply by conducting a qualitative comparative analysis of rural water utilities in China" (in en). Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua 71 (7): 801–815. doi:10.2166/aqua.2022.052. ISSN 0003-7214. https://iwaponline.com/aqua/article/71/7/801/89607/Identification-of-pathways-that-lead-to-continuous.  open access (Open access)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Loubser, Carlo; Basson, Suzanne Esther; Jacobs, Heinz Erasmus (2020). "A conceptual index for benchmarking intermittent water supply in a water distribution system zone". Water SA 46 (1 January): 12, 15. doi:10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i1.7873. ISSN 1816-7950. https://www.watersa.net/article/view/7873. 
  15. ↑ Mohan, S; Abhijith, GR (2021-02-22). "Intermittent water supply interventions for India's cities". in Hayward, Keith. https://www.thesourcemagazine.org/intermittent-water-supply-interventions-for-indias-cities/. 
  16. ↑ Andey, Subhash P; Kelkar, Prakash S. (2007). "Performance of water distribution systems during intermittent versus continuous water supply". Journal (American Water Works Association) 99 (8): 99–106. doi:10.1002/j.1551-8833.2007.tb08011.x. ISSN 0003-150X. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41312830. 
  17. ↑ Vairavamoorthy, Kala (2021-02-22). "Closing the SDG access gap – the challenge of intermittent supply". in Hayward, Keith (in en-US). https://www.thesourcemagazine.org/closing-the-sdg-access-gap-the-challenge-of-intermittent-supply/. 
  18. ↑ Loubser, Carlo; Chimbanga, Bubala Mwiinga; Jacobs, Heinz (January 2021). "Intermittent water supply: a South African perspective". Water SA 47 (1 January). doi:10.17159/wsa/2021.v47.i1.9440. ISSN 1816-7950. https://www.watersa.net/article/view/9440. 
  19. ↑ "24x7 water supply in Chandigarh: MoU signed with French loaning agency" (in en). 2022-09-15. https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/chandigarh-news/24x7-water-supply-in-chandigarh-mou-signed-with-french-loaning-agency-101663184027308.html. 
  20. ↑ "Delhi divided into three zones for 24X7 water supply project" (in en). 2021-09-05. https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/delhi-divided-into-three-zones-for-24x7-water-supply-project-121090500143_1.html. 
  21. ↑ "Shimla to get 24X7 water supply by 2025" (in en). 8 October 2022. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/shimla-to-get-24x7-water-supply-by-2025-439193. 
  22. ↑ Raj, Aravind (2 January 2023). "Coimbatore: 24x7 water supply project to drag on till '25". https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2023/jan/02/coimbatore-24x7-water-supply-project-to-drag-on-till-25-2533762.html. 
  23. ↑ Seetharam, K. E.; Bridges, Geoffrey (2005). "Helping India Achieve 24x7 Water Supply Service by 2010". https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29256/helping-india-24x7.pdf. 
  24. ↑ Hernandez-Lopez, R. D.; Tzatchkov, V. G.; Martin-Dominguez, A.; Alcocer-Yamanaka, V. H. (2016). "Study of hydraulics and mixing in roof tanks used in intermittent water supply" (in en). Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 6 (4): 547–554. doi:10.2166/washdev.2016.147. ISSN 2043-9083. https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/6/4/547/30432/Study-of-hydraulics-and-mixing-in-roof-tanks-used. 
  25. ↑ Rosenberg, David E.; Talozi, Samer; Lund, Jay R. (2008). "Intermittent water supplies: challenges and opportunities for residential water users in Jordan" (in en). Water International 33 (4): 488–504. doi:10.1080/02508060802474574. ISSN 0250-8060. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=cee_facpub. 

Further reading



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