Organization:ECOWAS

From HandWiki
Short description: Intergovernmental economic union


Economic Community of West African States

  • Communauté économique des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest  (French)
  • Comunidade Económica dos Estados da África Ocidental  (Portuguese)
Emblem of the Economic Community of West African States
Emblem
  Member states   Suspended states
  Member states
  Suspended states
HeadquartersAbuja, Nigeria [ ⚑ ] 9°2′35″N 7°31′32″E / 9.04306°N 7.52556°E / 9.04306; 7.52556
Official languages
  • English
  • French
  • Portuguese
Member states
Leaders
• Chairman
Bola Ahmed Tinubu
• President of the Commission
Omar Touray
Moustapha Cissé Lô
Establishment28 May 1975
• Treaty of Lagos
28 May 1975[1]
• Treaty Revision
24 July 1993
Area
• Total
5,114,162 km2 (1,974,589 sq mi) (7th)
Population
• 2019 estimate
387 million ({{{population estimate rank}}})
• Density
68.3/km2 (176.9/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2015 estimate
• Total
US$1.483 trillion[2] (18th)
• Per capita
US$4,247[3]
GDP (nominal)estimate
• Total
$816.4 billion[4] 2019 ({{{GDP nominal rank}}})
• Per capita
$2,089
Currency
Time zoneUTC-1 to +1

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS; also known as CEDEAO in French and Portuguese) is a regional political and economic union of fifteen countries located in West Africa. Collectively, these countries comprise an area of 5,114,162 km2 (1,974,589 sq mi) and have an estimated population of over 424.34 million.[5]

Considered one of the pillar regional blocs of the continent-wide African Economic Community (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective self-sufficiency" for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. Additionally, ECOWAS aims to raise living standards and promote economic development.[6] The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos, with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou, the largest city in Benin.[7]

ECOWAS's fundamental principles rely on equity, inter-dependence, solidarity, co-operation, nonaggression, regional peace, promotion of human rights, and economic and social justice.[8]

Notably among ECOWAS's protocols and plans are the ECOWAS Free Movement of Persons, Residences and Establishment Protocol and the Ecotour Action Plan 2019–2029. The Free Movement of Persons Protocol permits citizens the right to enter and reside in any member state's territory,[9] and the Ecotour Action Plan aims to develop and integrate the tourist industry of each member state.[10]

ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest.[11][12]

Member states

Upon its foundation, ECOWAS had 15 member states: eight French-speaking, five English-speaking, and two Portuguese-speaking. All current members joined the community as founding members in May 1975, except Cape Verde which joined in 1977.[13][14]

Morocco officially requested to join ECOWAS in February 2017.[15] The application was endorsed in principle at the summit of heads of state in June 2017.[16][17] However, Morocco's bid for membership was stalled as West African economic actors feared goods imported through Morocco's free trade agreements would flood the market of states within ECOWAS.[18]

States that have withdrawn or been suspended

Arabic-speaking Mauritania was one of the founding members of ECOWAS in 1975 and decided to withdraw in December 2000.[13] Mauritania signed a new associate-membership agreement in August 2017.[19]

Mali was suspended from ECOWAS on 30 May 2021, following its second military coup within nine months.[20] Guinea was also suspended on 8 September 2021, shortly after a military coup took place in the country.[21][22] Sanctions were placed on both countries on 16 September.[23] On 10 January 2022, Mali announced its decision to close its borders and recalled several ambassadors with ECOWAS in response to sanctions imposed for deferring elections for four years.[24] On 28 January 2022, Burkina Faso was suspended from ECOWAS following a military coup.[25] Niger was suspended from ECOWAS after the 2023 coup d'état and threatened with military intervention if President Mohamed Bazoum is not restored to office,[26][27] causing the Nigerien crisis. Additionally, ECOWAS closed all land and air borders between other member states and Niger and instituted a no-fly zone on all commercial flights to and from Niger. The suspension removed all commercial and financial transactions and froze Niger's assets in ECOWAS central banks.[26] On 16 September 2023, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso formed a military alliance, the Alliance of Sahel States, following ECOWAS threat to intervene to restore civilian rule in Niger.[28] On 21 November 2023, Niger's military government asked the ECOWAS regional court to order the lifting of sanctions imposed on the country.[29] Until the coup, aid from countries like the United States and international organizations like ECOWAS accounted for almost half of Niger's annual budget. Following Niger's ECOWAS suspension, Niger's neighbours closed their borders to the country and 70 percent of its electricity, coming from Nigeria, was cut off.[29] While these sanctions and consequences that have followed have impacted the individuals and economy of Niger, the government is not backing down. As a result of the suspension, children have not been able to attend school due to lack of supplies, and businesses are shutting down due to rising costs. Further, the ECOWAS lawyer pointed out that the Nigerien government is not recognized by ECOWAS and therefore does not have the power to ask the regional court for a removal of these sanctions.[29]

On 28 January 2024, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso announced via a joint statement that they were withdrawing from ECOWAS "without delay".[30] The three nations, all of which are currently ruled by military juntas, accused ECOWAS of implementing "inhumane" sanctions in order to reverse the coups in each nation.[31] Under the ECOWAS protocol, immediate withdrawal is not possible, and the three member states could remain in the bloc for up to a year. ECOWAS said in a statement that "Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali remain important members of the Community and the Authority remains committed to finding a negotiated solution to the political impasse."[32]

ECOWAS member states
Country Area[33]
(km2) 		Population[34]
(thousands) 		GDP (nominal)[35]
(millions USD) 		GDP (PPP)[36]
(millions intl.$) 		Currency Official
language 		Status
 Benin 114,763 10,880 8,291 22,377 CFA franc French
 Burkina Faso 272,967 18,106 10,678 30,708 CFA franc French Suspended
 Cape Verde 4,033 521 1,603 3,413 escudo Portuguese
 The Gambia 11,295 1,991 939 3,344 dalasi English
 Ghana 238,533 27,410 37,543 115,409 cedi English
 Guinea 245,857 12,609 6,699 15,244 franc French Suspended
 Guinea-Bissau 36,125 1,844 1,057 2,685 CFA franc Portuguese
 Ivory Coast 322,463 22,702 31,759 79,766 CFA franc French
 Liberia 111,369 4,503 2,053 3,762 dollar English
 Mali 1,240,192 17,600 12,747 35,695 CFA franc Bambara Suspended
 Niger 1,267,000 19,899 7,143 19,013 CFA franc French Suspended
 Nigeria 923,768 211,400 481,066 1,093,921 naira English
 Senegal 196,712 15,129 13,610 36,625 CFA franc French
 Sierra Leone 72,300 6,453 4,215 10,127 leone English
 Togo 56,785 7,305 4,088 10,667 CFA franc French
Total 5,114,162 338,052 623,491 1,482,756 Template:Sortdash

Statistics for population, nominal GDP and purchasing power parity GDP listed below are taken from World Bank estimates for 2015, published in December 2016.[34][35][36] Area data is taken from a 2012 report compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division.[33]

History

File:O ecowas.gif
Flag of ECOWAS

ECOWAS was formed initially from the region's former French, British and Portuguese territories, and independent Liberia, following post-colonial independence throughout the region (particularly in the 1960s and 1970s). At independence, many African states were challenged in increasing economic development.[37] Because these states could not address problems individually, there was a need for a regional approach and thus ECOWAS was founded.[37] ECOWAS was formed to provide regional economic cooperation, but has since evolved to include political and military cooperation, as well.[38]

The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos, with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou.[14] Considered one of the pillar regional blocs of the continent-wide African Economic Community (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective self-sufficiency" for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union.[39]

ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest.[37] ECOWAS facilitates peacekeeping through systematic collaboration with civil society, cooperation with development policies, and other activities with the goal to meet sub-regional security challenges.[37] It has played an important role in monitoring transitional election in West Africa, and these mediation efforts have even been recognized within and outside the continent of Africa.[37] In recent years these included interventions in Ivory Coast in 2003, Liberia in 2003, Guinea-Bissau in 2012, Mali in 2013, and The Gambia in 2017.[11][12] Since its creation, ECOWAS has only sent peacekeeping forces seven times.[40]

In 2011, ECOWAS adopted its development blueprint for the next decade, Vision 2020, and, to accompany it, a Policy on Science and Technology (ECOPOST).[41] However, it has had trouble achieving the goals outlined in the policy.[42]

Covering a region known as a "coup belt", ECOWAS, since the 1990s, has attempted to defend the region's shift towards democracy against authoritarian attacks. According to the BBC, since 1990, 78% of the 27 coups in sub-Saharan Africa have taken place in former French colonies. This has led some to question whether French influence in Africa has a destabilising impact.[43] The transition governments in Mali and Burkina Faso cancelled military agreements that allow for French troops to operate on their territory, and in the case of Mali, removed French as an official language.[44][45][46] However, the group has been cited for mild and ineffective responses in the early 2020s, when three member countries experienced military coups d'état – two in Mali, one in Guinea, and two in Burkina Faso.[21][22][47][48] When a fourth member, Niger, experienced a coup d'état in July 2023, ECOWAS was vocal in its condemnation and raised the possibility of military action if the deposed president was not reinstated by 7 August 2023.[49][50][51] Due to the Nigerien military’s refusal to restore civilian rule, ECOWAS activated its standby force composed of all other members except for Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea and Cape Verde.

Structure

Overall

ECOWAS consists of two operating institutions to implement policies: the ECOWAS Commission and the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) – formerly known as the Fund for Cooperation, until it was renamed in 2001.[52]

In addition, ECOWAS includes the following institutions: ECOWAS Commission, Community Court of Justice,[53] Community Parliament,[54] ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID),[54] West African Health Organisation (WAHO),[55] and the Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in West Africa (GIABA).[56]

ECOWAS includes two sub-regional blocks:

  • The West African Economic and Monetary Union (also known by its French-language acronym UEMOA) is an organisation of eight, mainly French-speaking, states within ECOWAS which share a customs union and currency union.[57] Established in 1994 and intended to counterbalance the dominance of English-speaking economies in the bloc (such as Nigeria and Ghana), members of UEMOA are mostly former territories of French West Africa. The currency they all use is the CFA franc, which is pegged to the euro.[57]
  • The West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ), established in 2000, comprises six mainly English-speaking countries within ECOWAS which plan to work towards adopting their own common currency, the eco.[57]

ECOWAS operates in three co-official languages—French, English, and Portuguese.[57]

Executive secretaries and presidents of the commission

Executive Secretary Country In office
Inaugural holder Aboubakar Diaby Ouattara [58]  Ivory Coast January 1977 – 1985
Momodu Munu  Sierra Leone 1985–1989
Abass Bundu 1989–1993
Édouard Benjamin  Guinea 1993–1997
Lansana Kouyaté September 1997 – 31 January 2002
Mohamed Ibn Chambas  Ghana 1 February 2002 – 31 December 2006
Mohamed Ibn Chambas 1 January 2007 – 18 February 2010
James Victor Gbeho 18 February 2010 – 1 March 2012
Kadré Désiré Ouedraogo  Burkina Faso 1 March 2012 – 4 June 2016
Marcel Alain de Souza  Benin 4 June 2016 – 1 March 2018
Jean-Claude Brou  Ivory Coast 1 March 2018 – 3 July 2022
Omar Touray  Gambia 3 July 2022 – Till date

Chairpersons[59]

Chairperson Country In office
Yakubu Gowon  Nigeria 28 May 1975 – 29 July 1975
Gnassingbé Eyadéma  Togo 29 July 1975 – 13 September 1977
Olusegun Obasanjo  Nigeria 13 September 1977 – 30 September 1979
Léopold Sédar Senghor  Senegal 30 September 1979 – 31 December 1980
Gnassingbé Eyadéma  Togo 1980–1981
Siaka Stevens  Sierra Leone 1981–1982
Mathieu Kérékou  Benin 1982–1983
Ahmed Sékou Touré  Guinea 1983–1984
Lansana Conté 1984–1985
Muhammadu Buhari  Nigeria 1985 – 27 August 1985
Ibrahim Babangida 27 August 1985 – 1989
Dawda Jawara  Gambia 1989–1990
Blaise Compaoré  Burkina Faso 1990–1991
Dawda Jawara  Gambia 1991–1992
Abdou Diouf  Senegal 1992–1993
Nicéphore Soglo  Benin 1993–1994
Jerry Rawlings  Ghana 1994 – 27 July 1996
Sani Abacha  Nigeria 27 July 1996 – 8 June 1998
Abdulsalami Abubakar 9 June 1998 – 1999
Gnassingbé Eyadéma  Togo 1999–1999
Alpha Oumar Konaré  Mali 1999 – 21 December 2001
Abdoulaye Wade  Senegal 21 December 2001 – 31 January 2003
John Kufuor  Ghana 31 January 2003 – 19 January 2005
Mamadou Tandja  Niger 19 January 2005 – 19 January 2007
Blaise Compaoré  Burkina Faso 19 January 2007 – 19 December 2008
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua  Nigeria 19 December 2008 – 18 February 2010
Goodluck Jonathan 18 February 2010 – 17 February 2012
Alassane Ouattara  Ivory Coast 17 February 2012 – 17 February 2013
John Mahama  Ghana 17 February 2013 – 19 May 2015
Macky Sall  Senegal 19 May 2015 – 4 June 2016
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf  Liberia 4 June 2016 – 4 June 2017
Faure Gnassingbé  Togo 4 June 2017 – 31 July 2018
Muhammadu Buhari  Nigeria 31 July 2018 – 29 June 2019
Mahamadou Issoufou  Niger 29 June 2019 – 2 June 2020
Nana Akufo-Addo  Ghana 2 June 2020 – 3 July 2022
Umaro Sissoco Embaló  Guinea-Bissau 3 July 2022 – 9 July 2023
Bola Tinubu  Nigeria 9 July 2023 – Till date

Regional security co-operation

ECOWAS nations assigned a non-aggression protocol in 1990 along with two earlier agreements in 1978 and 1981. They also signed a Protocol on Mutual Defence Assistance in Freetown, Sierra Leone, on 29 May 1981, that provided for the establishment of an Allied Armed Force of the Community.[60]

Community Parliament

The Community Parliament consists of 115 members, distributed based on the population of each member state.[61] This body is headed by the Speaker of the Parliament, who is above the Secretary General.

Country Parliament Seats
 Benin 5
 Burkina Faso 6
 Cape Verde 5
 Gambia 5
 Ghana 8
 Guinea 6
 Guinea-Bissau 5
 Ivory Coast 7
 Liberia 5
 Mali 6
 Niger 6
 Nigeria 35
 Senegal 6
 Sierra Leone 5
 Togo 5

Expanded ECOWAS Commission

For the third time since its inception in 1975, ECOWAS is undergoing institutional reforms. The first was when it revised its treaty on 24 July 1993; the second was in 2007 when the Secretariat was transformed into a Commission. As of July 2013, ECOWAS now has six new departments (Human Resources Management; Education, Science and Culture; Energy and Mines; Telecommunications and IT; Industry and Private Sector Promotion). Finance and Administration to Sierra Leone has been decoupled, to give the incoming Ghana Commissioner the new portfolio of Administration and Conferences.[62]

Community Court of Justice

ECOWAS Community Court of Justice was created by a protocol signed in 1991 and was later included in Article 6 of the Revised Treaty of the Community in 1993.[63] However, the Court did not officially begin operations until the 1991 protocol came into effect on 5 November 1996. The jurisdiction of the court is outlined in Article 9 and Articles 76 of the Revised Treaty and allows rulings on disputes between states over interpretations of the Revised Treaty. It also provides ECOWAS Council with advisory opinions on legal issues (Article 10). Like its companion courts, the European Court of Human Rights and East African Court of Justice, it has jurisdiction to rule on fundamental human rights breaches.[63]

Sporting and cultural exchange

ECOWAS nations organise a broad array of cultural and sports events under the auspices of the body, including the CEDEAO Cup in football, the 2012 ECOWAS Games and the Miss CEDEAO beauty pageant.[64]

The Community Heads of State and Government adopted African Traditional Wrestling as the Community sport, and through its specialised agency in charge of youth and sports development, the Ouagadougou-based ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development Centre (EYSDC), has consistently organised the yearly ECOWAS African Wrestling Tournament mainly in Dakar (Senegal) and Niamey (Niger) based on a harmonized African wrestling code.

The Community, through the EYSDC, also organized 2 editions of ECOWAS International Cycling tour, taking close to 100 riders from all member states, from Lagos to Accra and then from Lagos to Abidjan. In addition to the sports and well-being objective of the tour, the race also served to demonstrate and put into practice ECOWAS protocol on free movement of goods and persons.

In 2019, the EYSDC instituted ECOWAS Abuja International Marathon. The first edition brought together international marathoners from West Africa, Kenya, Ethiopia and Cameroon.

Similarly, the Community, through its specialised agency, promotes regional sports development by offering sponsorship to regional sports federations and specialized disciplines such as the West African Deaf Sports Union (WADSU), the West African Liaison Office of the International Council for Military Sports (WALO-CISM), the Region 2 of the African Athletics Federation, and the West African University Games (WAUG), among others.

Youth

The ECOWAS Youth Policy Strategic Plan of Action (SPAO) is a 10-year plan that aims to promote youth development and empowerment in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The SPAO was adopted in 2016 and is based on the pillars of education and training, employment and entrepreneurship, health and well-being, peace and security, and governance and participation.[65][66]

The SPAO identifies a number of challenges facing youth in ECOWAS, including high unemployment rates, lack of access to education and training, and poor health outcomes. The plan sets out a number of strategies to address these challenges, including investing in education and training, creating jobs and supporting entrepreneurship, improving access to health care, promoting peace and security, and strengthening youth participation in governance.[65][66]

Economic integration

West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA)

  UEMOA
  WAMZ
  ECOWAS only (Cape Verde)

The West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU,[67] also known as UEMOA from its name in French, Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine) is an organisation of eight, mainly francophone West African states within ECOWAS, previously colonies of French West Africa.[68] It was established to promote economic integration among countries that share the CFA franc as a common currency.[69] UEMOA was created by a Treaty signed at Dakar, Senegal, on 10 January 1994, by the heads of state and governments of Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. On 2 May 1997, Guinea-Bissau, a former Portuguese colony, became the organisation's eighth (and only non-francophone) member state.

UEMOA is a customs union and currency union between the members of ECOWAS. Its objectives include:[70]

  • Greater economic competitiveness, through open markets, in addition to the rationalisation and harmonisation of the legal environment
  • The convergence of macro-economic policies and indicators
  • The creation of a common market
  • The co-ordination of sectoral policies
  • The harmonisation of fiscal policies

Among its achievements, the UEMOA has successfully implemented macro-economic convergence criteria and an effective surveillance mechanism. It has adopted a customs union and common external tariff and has combined indirect taxation regulations, in addition to initiating regional structural and sectoral policies. A September 2002 IMF survey cited the UEMOA as "the furthest along the path toward integration" of all the regional groupings in Africa.[71]

ECOWAS and UEMOA have developed a common plan of action on trade liberalisation and macroeconomic policy convergence. The organizations have also agreed on common rules of origin to enhance trade, and ECOWAS has agreed to adopt UEMOA's customs declaration forms and compensation mechanisms.[72]

However, within the region, there has been a low level of integration with an increase in income disparities since the creation of WAEMU. Côte d'Ivoire had the highest GDP per capita in 2022 at 1,950 USD while Niger had the lowest one at 484 USD. In the same year, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal alone accounted for more than 60% of the unions' exports. Additionally, there is a large discrepancy in countries' economic performance over the 2010 decade; the best performance was recorded by Côte d'Ivoire (annual growth rate of 6.72%) and the lowest one by Guinea Bissau (3.85%). However, positive progress has been made in economic distribution since the foundation of WAMEU, with the mean dispersion of economic growth in the region being 1.26 before the creation and 0.73 after.[69]

Membership

  •  Benin (Founding Member)
  •  Burkina Faso (Founding Member)
  •  Guinea-Bissau (Joined on 2 May 1997)
  •  Ivory Coast (Founding Member)
  •  Mali (Founding Member)
  •  Niger (Founding Member)
  •  Senegal (Founding Member)
  •  Togo (Founding Member)

West African Monetary Zone

Formed in 2000, the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) is a group of six countries within ECOWAS that plan to introduce a common currency called the eco.[73] The six member states of WAMZ are Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria and Sierra Leone who founded the organisation together in 2000 and Liberia who joined on 16 February 2010. Apart from Guinea, which is francophone, they are all English-speaking countries. Along with Mauritania, Guinea opted out of the CFA franc currency shared by all other former French colonies in West and Central Africa.

The WAMZ attempts to establish a strong stable currency to rival the CFA franc, whose exchange rate is tied to that of the euro and is guaranteed by the French Treasury. The eventual goal is for the CFA franc and eco to merge, giving all of West and Central Africa a single, stable currency. The launch of the new currency is being developed by the West African Monetary Institute based in Accra, Ghana.

Membership

  •  Gambia (Founding Member)
  •  Ghana (Founding Member)
  •  Guinea (Founding Member)
  •  Liberia (Joined on 16 February 2010)[74][75]
  •  Nigeria (Founding Member)
  •  Sierra Leone (Founding Member)

The Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment Protocol

In May 1979, ECOWAS adopted a Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment Protocol, which permits citizens to enter, reside, and establish economic activities in the territory of member states.[9] There were three phases of implementation to achieve the goals of the protocol. Over the course of five years, Phase I eliminated the need for visas for stays of up to 90 days within the ECOWAS territory.[9] Phase II attempted to extend residency to citizens in host ECOWAS states to seek income-earning employment after obtaining an ECOWAS residence card. Phase II also required member states to grant migrant workers equal treatment in areas such as employment, participation, social and cultural activities, and in certain cases of job loss, re-employment, and training.[76] Phase III centered on the facilitation and establishment of business through the right of citizens to manage economic activities in countries other than their country of origin. However, this right has not been fully established in the ECOWAS region.[9] While these three phases promoting freedom of movement within the ECOWAS region is more advanced than in any other regional grouping in Africa, only the first phase has been fully implemented by all ECOWAS countries.[9] The complete implementation of the 90-day visa-free window enhanced human mobility in the region, creating positive impacts on trade and economic development.[77]

In December 2000, the ECOWAS passport was introduced as a common passport that functions as an international travel document, and member states are currently in the process of implementing a joint visa for non-ECOWAS citizens.[78] Additionally, ECOWAS has worked to ease the movement of people transported in private and commercial vehicles by implementing policies that enable vehicles to enter and reside in a State for up to ninety days. Most ECOWAS states have instituted an ECOWAS brown card, which provides prompt, fair, and immediate compensation for any motor accident which occurs outside a motorist's home-country.[79]

While monitoring committees exist to ensure all three phases of the protocol are successfully implemented, their work is vague and has not been credited with effective and efficient production of data.[9] The largest challenges assosicated within the implementation of the protocol occur due to lack of commitment and enforceability. More so, there is a lack of access to readily available migrant information in the ECOWAS region. This poses a barrier to freedom of movement as immigration officials in member states are unaware that individuals who hold valid travel documents can enter their country freely. Therefore, West African migrants, who are entitled to enter through regular channels, leave their countries without proper travel documents and enter other countries illegally. This illegal and irregular entry poses a barrier towards gaining reliable travel statistics.[9]

For example, Francophone countries in the region have issued national identity cards that can be used similarly to a passport. These cards permit citizens to cross borders after presenting their identity cards. However, Anglophone countries have only just begun distributing a similar form of identification. Consequently, immigration officials in Anglophone countries commonly reject Francophone national identity cards and do not permit Francophone citizens to cross into their borders. Further, these structural barriers are exasperated between different social classes. Middle-class individuals typically experience a smoother border-crossing process than working-class individuals and impoverished citizens who do not have travel documents and are not fluent in the language of the countries they are crossing into.[80]

Transport

A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone.[81]

Tourism

In 2019, ECOWAS unveiled its Ecotour Action Plan 2019 – 2029. It focuses on tourism heritage protection and development and on the development of standards, regulations, and control systems.[82][83][84] The plan includes five programs for implementation, and detailed mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation. Ecotourism is not specifically developed, yet it has been mentioned that the program has the opportunity to create linkages between institutions and stakeholder collaboration to suit ecotourism projects that prioritize community, biodiversity, and socioeconomics.[85] The Ecotour Plan prioritizes local development, especially in generating skilled and unskilled jobs for marginalized individuals, and aims to make the ECOWAS region a first-class tourist destination in Africa.[10] During its creation, ECOWAS ministers also called on ecotourism programs to protect threatened biodiversity in the Guinean Forests, which span into seven ECOWAS member states. Similar to the Free Movement of People Protocol, Ecotour aims to integrate aviation and ground transportation. ECOWAS hopes that this regional approach will allow states to fight against pandemics such as COVID-19 to restore tourism and ecosystems. Ecotour works to create increasing returns to its members' economies by lowering transport costs, developing hospitality training centers and creating a more integrated use of digital technology.[86]

As of March 2023, Council members mentioned that phases one and two of the Ecotour Action Plan have come to an end and that the community is moving into phase three and four, which focuses on the development of tourist accommodations establishments, and a proposal for a regional mechanism to enforce tourist regulations. By the end of phase five, ECOWAS hopes to have unified accommodations in hotels, ecolodges, motels, apart hotels, and hostels. In April 2023, tourism experts met to amend the new text for tourist accommodations in the ECOWAS region.[87] This phase is critical to the success of the Ecotour plan as the lack of a regulatory system has been a barrier to the development of the tourism sector, despite its ability to increase member states' economies.[88] During this conference, ministers improved the tourism industry by adopting standards for hotel services. Mrs. Massandjé Toure-Liste, the ECOWAS Commission's Commissioner for Economic Affairs and Agriculture, pointed out the improvements in the tourist sector due to the African Continental Free Trade Area, a trade agreement signed by 44 members of the African Union which creates a single market for goods and services. Mrs. Toure-Liste praised the trade area for providing development opportunities, economic growth, and boosting regional integration.[89]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "African Union". http://www.african-union.org/root/au/RECs/ecowas.htm. 
  2. ↑ Data. "GDP, PPP (current international $) | Table". World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?order=wbapi_data_value_2013+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc. 
  3. ↑ Data. "GNI per capita, PPP (current international $) | Table". World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.PP.CD/countries. 
  4. ↑ Data. "Enoch Randy Aikins (2023) West Africa/ECOWAS. Updated 7 June 2023. (current US$) | Table". futures.issafrica.org.. https://futures.issafrica.org/geographic/regions/west-africa-ecowas/#economics. 
  5. ↑ "Members of the ECOWAS – Economic Community of West African States" (in en). https://www.worlddata.info/trade-agreements/ecowas-west-africa.php. 
  6. ↑ "Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" (in en). http://ustr.gov/countries-regions/africa/regional-economic-communities-rec/economic-community-west-african-states. 
  7. ↑ "Revised ECOWAS Treaty (1993) | International Investment Agreements Navigator | UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub". https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/otheriia/3207/revised-ecowas-treaty-1993-#:~:text=Revised%20ECOWAS%20Treaty%20(1993)%20%7C,Navigator%20%7C%20UNCTAD%20Investment%20Policy%20Hub. 
  8. ↑ Limited, Daniel Inaju-Challydoff. "Fundamental Principles | Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" (in en). https://ecowas.int/fundamental-principles-2/. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Adepoju, A.; Boulton, A.; Levin, M. (September 2010). "Promoting Integration Through Mobility: Free Movement Under Ecowas". Refugee Survey Quarterly 29 (3): 120–144. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdq032. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "ECOWAS to promote regional development through tourism". Agence de Presse Africaine. 31 May 2019. ProQuest 2232643790. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Adeyemi, Segun (6 August 2003). "West African Leaders Agree on Deployment to Liberia". Jane's Defence Weekly. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "The 5 previous West African military interventions". Yahoo News. AFP. 20 January 2017. https://www.yahoo.com/news/5-previous-west-african-military-interventions-111050770.html. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Pazzanita, Anthony (2008). Historical Dictionary of Mauritania. Scarecrow Press. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-0-8108-6265-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=-KU_9MfXKKYC&pg=PA177. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Odeyemi, Temitayo Isaac (2020), Oloruntoba, Samuel Ojo, ed., "Regional Integration and the Political Economy of Morocco's Desire for Membership in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" (in en), Pan Africanism, Regional Integration and Development in Africa (Springer International Publishing): pp. 97–123, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34296-8_6, ISBN 978-3-030-34295-1 
  15. ↑ "Afrique". Diplomatie.ma. 24 February 2017. https://www.diplomatie.ma/Politique%C3%A9trang%C3%A8re/Afrique/tabid/136/vw/1/ItemID/14476/language/en-US/Default.aspx?platform=hootsuite. 
  16. ↑ "Togolese president Faure Gnassingbe takes the reins of the ECOWAS Authority of Heads of State and Government". 7 June 2017. http://www.ecowas.int/togolese-president-faure-gnassingbe-takes-the-reins-of-the-ecowas-authority-of-heads-of-state-and-government/. 
  17. ↑ Odeyemi, Temitayo Isaac (2020), Oloruntoba, Samuel Ojo, ed., "Regional Integration and the Political Economy of Morocco's Desire for Membership in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" (in en), Pan Africanism, Regional Integration and Development in Africa (Springer International Publishing): pp. 97–123, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34296-8_6, ISBN 978-3-030-34295-1 
  18. ↑ Imru AL Qays Talha Jebril (13 February 2020). "Morocco-ECOWAS: Good intentions are not enough". Moroccan Institute for Policy Analysis. https://mipa.institute/7323. 
  19. ↑ Okanla, Karim (15 February 2019). "Like a magnet". https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/ecowas-has-made-considerable-progress-still-has-ample-room-improvement. 
  20. ↑ "ECOWAS suspends Mali over second coup in nine months". Al Jazeera. 31 May 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/31/ecowas-suspends-mali-over-second-coup-in-nine-months. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Samb, Saliou; Eboh, Camillus; Inveen, Cooper (September 9, 2021). "West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-african-leaders-due-guinea-post-coup-calm-pervades-conakry-2021-09-09/. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup" , September 9, 2021, BBC News, retrieved September 9, 2021
  23. ↑ Christian, Akorlie; Samb, Saliou; Felix, Bate; Inveen, Cooper; Prentice, Alessandra (September 17, 2021). "West African bloc resorts to sanctions over Guinea and Mali coups". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-african-leaders-meet-decide-guinea-after-coup-2021-09-16/. 
  24. ↑ AHMED, BABA (2022-01-10). "Mali's junta deplores new sanctions imposed by regional bloc" (in en-US). https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Mali-s-junta-deplores-new-sanctions-imposed-by-16763433.php. 
  25. ↑ "West African regional bloc suspends Burkina Faso's membership over coup" (in en). France 24. 28 January 2022. https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20220128-west-african-regional-bloc-suspends-burkina-faso-s-membership-over-coup. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "West Africa: ECOWAS Warns It Could Use Force in Niger" (in en). The Point. 2023-08-01. https://allafrica.com/stories/202308010371.html. 
  27. ↑ "West African ECOWAS bloc suspends ties with Niger and authorizes use of force if president not reinstated within a week". Associated Press. ABC News (Niamey). https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/west-african-ecowas-bloc-suspends-ties-niger-authorizes-101848076. 
  28. ↑ "Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso sign Sahel security pact". Reuters. 16 September 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/mali-niger-burkina-faso-sign-sahel-security-pact-2023-09-16/. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Niger government asks court to force ECOWAS to lift coup sanctions" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/22/niger-asks-west-africas-court-to-compel-neighbors-to-lift-coup-sanctions-citing-hardship. 
  30. ↑ "Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger quit ECOWAS – DW – 01/28/2024" (in en). https://www.dw.com/en/mali-burkina-faso-and-niger-quit-ecowas/a-68106116. 
  31. ↑ News, A. B. C.. "Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso withdraw from West Africa regional bloc ECOWAS as tensions deepen" (in en). https://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory/mali-niger-burkina-faso-withdraw-west-africas-regional-106743815. 
  32. ↑ "Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso announce withdrawal from ECOWAS" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/28/niger-mali-burkina-faso-announce-withdrawal-from-ecowas. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Demographic Yearbook – Population by sex, annual rate of population increase, surface area and density". United Nations Statistics Division. 2012. pp. 1–2. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Population 2015". World Bank. 16 December 2016. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/POP.pdf. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Gross domestic product 2015". World Bank. 16 December 2016. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Gross domestic product 2015, PPP". World Bank. 16 December 2016. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP_PPP.pdf. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Olonisakin, Funmi (2011). "ECOWAS: From Economic Integration to Peace-building". ECOWAS and the Dynamics of Conflict and Peace-building. CODESRIA. pp. 11–26. doi:10.2307/j.ctvk8w0dp.6. ISBN 978-2-86978-496-3. 
  38. ↑ Yansane, Aguibou (1977). "The State of Economic Integration in North West Africa South of the Sahara: The Emergence of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)". African Studies Review 20 (2): 63–87. doi:10.2307/523653. 
  39. ↑ "Basic information | Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)". https://ecowas.int/about-ecowas/basic-information/. 
  40. ↑ "Coups in Africa, Even in ECOWAS | Wilson Center" (in en). https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/coups-africa-even-ecowas. 
  41. ↑ "ECOWAS VISION 2020". http://araa.org/sites/default/files/media/ECOWAS-VISION-2020_0.pdf. 
  42. ↑ Forson, Joseph Ato (2019-09-02). "West African states have a science and technology plan. But it's going nowhere" (in en). http://theconversation.com/west-african-states-have-a-science-and-technology-plan-but-its-going-nowhere-121273. 
  43. ↑ "Is France to blame for coups in West Africa?" (in en-GB). 2023-08-06. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66406137. 
  44. ↑ Ndiaga, Thiam (2023-02-20). "Burkina Faso marks official end of French military operations on its soil" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-marks-official-end-french-military-operations-its-soil-2023-02-19/. 
  45. ↑ "Last French troops leave Mali, ending nine-year deployment" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/16/last-french-troops-leave-mali-ending-nine-year-deployment. 
  46. ↑ Avi-Yonah, Shera (2023-08-04). "Mali demotes French, language of its former colonizer, in symbolic move" (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/08/03/mali-french-new-constitution/. 
  47. ↑ Durmaz, Mucahid. "As militarisation spreads, ECOWAS faces credibility crisis" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/8/as-militarisation-spreads-ecowas-faces-credibility-crisis. 
  48. ↑ "The "politics of coups" shape the response to West Africa's military juntas | DIIS" (in en). 2023-05-18. https://www.diis.dk/en/node/26399. 
  49. ↑ "West African leaders threaten intervention in Niger after military coup". Radio France Internationale. 2023-07-30. https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20230730-west-africa-ecowas-threaten-military-intervention-iniger-military-coup. 
  50. ↑ "Niger coup: West African leaders threaten military intervention" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2023-07-30. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66353284. 
  51. ↑ "ECOWAS approves military intervention in Niger" (in en). 2023-08-11. https://english.alarabiya.net/News/north-africa/2023/08/11/ECOWAS-approves-military-intervention-in-Niger. 
  52. ↑ "Aboutus – EBID | ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development". https://www.bidc-ebid.org/en/?page_id=42697. 
  53. ↑ "CCJ Official Website". prod.courtecowas.org. http://prod.courtecowas.org/. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)". ecowas.int. https://www.ecowas.int/. 
  55. ↑ "WAHO | West African Health Organization". https://www.wahooas.org/web-ooas/. 
  56. ↑ "Welcome !". GIABA. https://www.giaba.org/. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 "Basic information | Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)". https://ecowas.int/about-ecowas/basic-information/. 
  58. ↑ Ajulo, Sunday Babalola (1989). "The Economic Community of West African States and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies 27 (2): 233–250. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000046X. ISSN 0022-278X. 
  59. ↑ History, Directorate of Communication, ECOWAS Commission, 2024, https://www.ecowas.int/history-2/, retrieved 30 January 2024 
  60. ↑ "Profile: Economic Community of West African States". Africa Union. 18 November 2010. http://www.africa-union.org/Recs/ECOWASProfile.pdf. 
  61. ↑ About Us – ECOWAS Parliament, accessed 6 March 2017
  62. ↑ Bensah, Emmanuel K. (24 July 2013). "Communicating ECOWAS Message (4): A New Roadmap for the Ouedraogo Commission(1)". Modernghana.com. http://www.modernghana.com/news/477274/1/communicating-the-ecowas-message-4-a-new-roadmap-f.html. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "ECOWAS (2007) Information Manual: The Institutions of the Community ECOWAS". http://www.ecowascourt.org/French/texts/information.pdf. 
  64. ↑ "Miss ECOWAS 2010". The Economist. 18 November 2010. https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2010/11/west_african_beauty_pageant. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 State, Economic Community of West African (2010), Ecowas youth policy and strategic plan of action, Ecowas Commission 2010, http://librarydb.unilag.edu.ng/newgenlibctxt/View?CatId=28083&OwnLibId=1&LibraryId=1&From=Library, retrieved 2023-08-05 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 GNA (2023-04-27). "ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development Centre keen on globalising Traditional African Sports" (in en-US). https://gna.org.gh/2023/04/ecowas-youth-and-sports-development-centre-keen-on-globalising-traditional-african-sports/. 
  67. ↑ "West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU)". 9 October 2020. https://ecfr.eu/special/african-cooperation/waemu/. 
  68. ↑ "La concurrence des organisations régionales en Afrique". Paris: L'Harmattan. 2012. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Alinsato, Alastaire Sèna (January 2022). "Regional Integration in the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU): Complementarity or Competition?". Economies 10 (1): 22. doi:10.3390/economies10010022. 
  70. ↑ "Chapter 1. Introduction: Reflections on an Agenda for Regional Integration and Cooperation in West Africa: International Development Research Centre". http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-68350-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html.  Regional Integration and Cooperation in West Africa a Multidimensional Perspective, Chapter 1. Introduction: Reflections on an Agenda for Regional Integration and Cooperation in West Africa
  71. ↑ "Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" fact sheet from the US Department of State's Bureau of African Affairs
  72. ↑ "Annual Report on Integration in Africa 2002" All Africa, 1 March 2002
  73. ↑ "Common West Africa currency: ECO in 2015". MC Modern Ghana. http://www.modernghana.com/news/219137/1/common-west-africa-currency-eco-in-2015.html. 
  74. ↑ "The Supplementary Wamz Payment System Development Project the Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia". Africa Development Bank Group. 2011. http://www.afdb.org/en/projects-and-operations/project-portfolio/project/p-z1-hz0-002/. 
  75. ↑ "WAMZ gets US$7.8 million grant". Accra Daily Mail. 2011. http://www.accra-mail.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27733:wamz-gets-us-78-million-grant&catid=81:business&Itemid=211. 
  76. ↑ Adepoju, A.; Boulton, A.; Levin, M. (September 2010). "Promoting Integration Through Mobility: Free Movement Under Ecowas". Refugee Survey Quarterly 29 (3): 120–144. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdq032. 
  77. ↑ Castillejo, Clare (2019). "The influence of EU migration policy on regional free movement in the IGAD and ECOWAS regions". Discussion Paper. doi:10.23661/dp11.2019. 
  78. ↑ "ECOWAS – Free Movement of Persons | United Nations Economic Commission for Africa". https://archive.uneca.org/pages/ecowas-free-movement-persons. 
  79. ↑ "Benefits | ECOWAS Brown Card Insurance" (in fr). https://www.browncard.org/Avantages.html. 
  80. ↑ Garba, Faisal; Yeboah, Thomas (2022). "Free Movement and Regional Integration in the ECOWAS Sub-Region". Migration in West Africa. IMISCOE Research Series. pp. 19–34. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97322-3_2. ISBN 978-3-030-99238-5. 
  81. ↑ Proposed Ecowas railway railwaysafrica.com
  82. ↑ ECOWAS Regional Tourism Action Plan westafricatourism.com
  83. ↑ ECOWAS ECOTOUR pdf www.ecowas.int
  84. ↑ ECOWAS to promote regional development through tourism apanews.net
  85. ↑ West Africa's (eco)tourism initiative: Last chance to protect African biodiversity trade4devnews.enhancedif.org
  86. ↑ "West Africa's (eco)tourism initiative: Last chance to protect African biodiversity" (in en). https://trade4devnews.enhancedif.org/en/op-ed/west-africas-ecotourism-initiative-last-chance-protect-african-biodiversity. 
  87. ↑ Limited, Daniel Inaju-Challydoff. "Tourism Experts from West Africa to Meet in Lome | Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)" (in en). https://ecowas.int/tourism-experts-from-west-africa-to-meet-in-lome/. 
  88. ↑ Report, Africa Hotel (2023-04-01). "ECOWAS Commission Develops New Regulations for Tourist Accommodation in West Africa" (in en-US). https://africahotelreport.com/ecowas-sets-new-tourist-accommodation-regulations-in-africa/. 
  89. ↑ "ECOWAS ministers boost the tourism industry with the adoption of new standards for hotel services" (in en-US). https://www.trademarkafrica.com/news/ecowas-ministers-boost-the-tourism-industry-with-the-adoption-of-new-standards-for-hotel-services/. 

External links



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Organization:ECOWAS&oldid=3388523"