Philosophy:Perspective-taking

From HandWiki

Perspective-taking is the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an alternative point of view, such as that of another individual.[1] A vast amount of scientific literature suggests that perspective-taking is crucial to human development[2] and that it may lead to a variety of beneficial outcomes.[3][4] Perspective-taking may also be possible in some non-human animals.[5]

Both theory and research have suggested ages when children begin to perspective-take and how that ability develops over time.[2][6] Research suggests that certain people who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with comorbid conduct problems (such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder)[7][8] or autism[9] may have reduced ability to engage in perspective-taking.

Studies to assess the brain regions involved in perspective-taking suggest that several regions may be involved, including the prefrontal cortex and the precuneus.[10]

Perspective-taking is related to other theories and concepts including theory of mind[11] and empathy.[12]

Definition

Perspective-taking takes place when an individual views a situation from another's point-of-view.[1][13] Perspective-taking has been defined along two dimensions: perceptual and conceptual.[14]

Perceptual perspective-taking is the ability to understand how another person experiences things through their senses (i.e. visually or auditorily).[14] Most of the literature devoted to perceptual perspective-taking focuses on visual perspective-taking: the ability to understand the way another person sees things in physical space.[6]

Conceptual perspective-taking is the ability to comprehend and take on the viewpoint of another person's psychological experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings, and attitudes).[14]

Related terms

Theory of mind

Theory of mind is the awareness that people have individual psychological states that differ from one another.[15] Within perspective-taking literature, the term perspective-taking and theory of mind are sometimes used interchangeably; some studies use theory of mind tasks in order to test if someone is engaging in perspective-taking.[16] The two concepts are related but different: theory of mind is the recognition that another person has different thoughts and feelings while perspective-taking is the ability to take on that other person's point of view.[11]

Empathy

Empathy has been defined as the ability to share the same emotions another person is having.[17] Empathy and perspective-taking have been studied together in a variety of ways. There are not always clear lines of distinction between empathy and perspective-taking; the two concepts are often studied in conjunction with one another and viewed as related and similar. Some research distinguishes the two concepts and points out their differences,[1] while other literature theorizes that perspective-taking is one component of empathy.[12][18]

In development

Visual

Architecture students draw a ball and scaffolding. Everyone sees its shapes from a different perspective

Studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking, and have drawn different conclusions.

In 1956, Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder conducted a study to assess the visual perspective-taking abilities of young children. This study has come to be known as the three mountain problem.[2] It found that by the ages of nine to ten, children can successfully complete the three mountain problem and they seem able to understand that when someone is standing in a different location (i.e. on a different mountain top) they have a different view. However, children ages eight and under struggled with this task.[2]

Since this classic study, a number of studies have suggested that visual perspective-taking may be possible earlier than the age of nine.[19][20] For example, a study that used a different method to assess visual perspective-taking suggested that children may be able to successfully visually perspective-take by the age of four and a half years old.[19] In this study, four-and-a-half-year-old children were able to understand that someone sitting closer to a picture would have a better view of that picture. However, these researchers found that children who were three and three-and-a-half years old struggled with this task which led them to conclude that the age range of three to four-and-a-half years old could be crucial in perspective-taking development.[19]

Developmental psychologist John H. Flavell suggested that there are two levels of visual perspective-taking that emerge as children develop:[6]

  1. Level 1 perspective-taking is defined as the ability to understand that someone else may see things differently and to understand what another person can see in physical space.[6] For example, one could understand that while an object may be obstructing their own view, from where another person is standing they can see a cat in the room.
  2. Level 2 perspective-taking is defined as the understanding that another person can see things differently in physical space and to understand how those objects are organized from that other person's point of view.[6] For example, a person can understand that from another person's point of view they can see a dog to the right but from their own point of view the dog is to the left.

Studies have examined when children are able to demonstrate level 1 and level 2 perspective-taking. These studies have shown that children at 24 months old[21][22] and 14 months old[23] may be able to engage in level 1 perspective-taking, and be able to understand various lines of sight depending on the position of a person.[24][25] Research also suggests that children can engage in level 2 perspective-taking as early as two and a half years old.[26]

Studies also suggest that visual perspective-taking ability improves from childhood to adulthood.[27] For example, in comparing six-year-olds, eight-year-olds, ten-year-olds, and adults (averaging 19 years old) researchers found that as people's age increases, visual perspective-taking tasks can be done with more accuracy and speed.[28]

Conceptual

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, he suggests that perspective-taking begins in the concrete operational stage (third stage) which ranges from ages seven to twelve.[29] In this stage the idea of decentration is introduced as a cognitive ability (decentration is the ability to take into account the way others perceive various aspects of a given situation).[29]

Another developmental perspective-taking theory was created by Robert L. Selman and called social perspective-taking theory (or Role-taking theory). This theory suggests that there are five developmental stages involved in perspective-taking ranging from ages three to six (characterized by egocentrism or an inability to think of things from another's point of view) to teenagers and adults (who can understand another person's point of view and whose understanding is informed by recognizing another person's environment and culture).[30] The theory suggests that as humans mature from childhood to adulthood their ability to perspective-take improves. Studies by Selman and colleagues suggest that children can perspective-take in different ways at different ages.[31]

Other studies assess that children can begin to take on the viewpoint of another person, considering their feelings, thoughts, and attitudes, as four-year-olds.[14][32]

In adults

Although the distinction between visual and cognitive perspective-taking is important, some authors claim that all forms of perspective-taking rely on the same general ability, and different types of perspective-taking correlate.[33][34]

With respect to visual perspective-taking in adults, Tversky and Hard (2009) have shown that observers tend to use the point of view of another person when describing the spatial relations of objects.[35] Processing other perspectives may be spontaneous, and according to some studies even automatic.[36]

There are also cases where we spontaneously evaluate what another person is seeing, but we make systematic mistakes. A striking example is when a person in a scene is looking towards a mirror, we often interpret that as if they are seeing themselves even when the layout makes it impossible. This phenomenon is known as the Venus effect[37]

Brain regions

Visual

Visual perspective-taking studies that focus on brain regions are generally performed by collecting functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while participants perform perspective-taking tasks. For example, a participant may be shown a picture of another person with objects around them and asked to take on the viewpoint of that person and indicate the number of objects they see (Level 1 visual perspective-taking) and if the objects are located to the right or left of the other person (level 2 visual perspective-taking).[10] While the participant is completing this task they are also having an fMRI scan.

A meta-analysis that looked at fMRI research on visual perspective-taking as of 2013 suggested that several areas of the brain have clustered activation during these perspective-taking tasks. These areas included the left prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, and the left cerebellum.[10] Studies suggest these areas of the brain are involved in decision-making[38] visual imagery,[39] and attention[40] respectively[clarification needed].

Conceptual

Research also suggests that multiple brain areas are involved in conceptual perspective-taking. Studies have been conducted by administering a positron emission tomography (PET) scan and asking participants to engage in perspective-taking tasks. For example, in one study, participants who were all medical students were asked to consider the knowledge base someone who was not in the medical field would have on a list of medical questions.[41]

Studies suggest that regions that are activated during cognitive perspective-taking include the right parietal lobe and the posterior cingulate cortex among others.[41][42] Some areas seem to be involved both when people imagine themselves and when they imagine the perspective of others. For example, when participants were asked to imagine themselves engaging in an activity versus imagining another person engaging in that activity the precuneus and the supplementary motor area (SMA) were activated, suggesting visual imagery and motor movement thoughts were involved in both tasks.[42]

Deficits

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Research highlights that perspective-taking may be more difficult for some children who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) plus co-occurring conduct disorders. ADHD research has shown that children with this diagnosis demonstrate impairments in attention and communication:[7] They have a harder time taking on the viewpoint of others than children who do not.[8]

Autism

Evidence suggests that children with autism may be able to engage in visual perspective-taking but have difficulty engaging in conceptual perspective-taking.[43] For example, a study that compared perspective-taking scores in children who had been diagnosed with autism as compared to children who did not have this diagnosis found no significant difference in scores on level 1 and level 2 visual perspective-taking. However, the study found it was much harder for autistic children to engage in conceptual perspective-taking tasks.[9]

Some studies have explored potential interventions that could help improve perspective-taking abilities in children with autism. They suggest that video may help teach perspective-taking skills in such children.[44][16] One intervention study with autistic children found that showing the children a video of someone engaging in perspective-taking tasks and explaining their actions led to improved perspective-taking ability.[16]

Outcomes

An abundance of literature links perspective-taking abilities with other behaviors. Much of this literature focuses on conceptual perspective-taking.[14]

Benefit

Conceptual perspective-taking gives one the ability to better understand the reason behind another person's actions. This also helps one engage in social conversations in an acceptable and friendly way.

Empathy

Many studies associate perspective-taking with empathy. Psychologist Mark Davis suggested that empathy consists of multiple dimensions. To assess this, Davis developed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI).[12] The IRI consists of four subscales: fantasy, empathic concern, personal distress, and perspective-taking. The perspective-taking subscale asks participants to report how likely they are to engage in trying to see things from another person's point of view.[12] Studies using this widely cited measure found that perspective-taking is associated with many prosocial behaviors. One study, which assessed cross-cultural data in 63 countries using the IRI, concluded that perspective-taking and empathic concern was associated with volunteerism and agreeableness as well as self-esteem and life satisfaction.[45]

Research suggests that perspective-taking leads to empathic concern.[46] This research distinguishes between two different types of perspective-taking: thinking of how oneself would act, feel, and behave if placed in someone else's situation and thinking of the way that another person thinks, feels, and behaves in their own situation.[46] The results of this research reveals that thinking of how another person behaves and feels in their own situation leads to feelings of empathy. However, thinking of how one would behave in another person's situation leads to feelings of empathy as well as of distress.[46]

Research also finds that in negotiations, taking on the perspective of another person and empathizing with them may have differential outcomes[clarification needed]. One study found that people who engaged in perspective-taking were more effective in making a deal with another person and in finding innovative agreements that satisfied both parties, as compared to those who empathized with someone else.[1]

Sympathy and caring

Research reveals that perspective-taking is associated with sympathy toward others and prosocial behavior in children as young as 18 months old.[47] A study of sibling interactions found that toddlers who were older siblings were more likely to help take care of their younger siblings when they[clarification needed] demonstrated higher perspective-taking abilities.[48]

Creativity

Perspective-taking is also associated with creativity. It increases the amount of creative ideas generated in team activities.[49] One study suggests that perspective-taking leads to more creative and innovative ideas particularly in participants who are internally driven to complete a task.[4]

Bias and stereotype reduction

Many studies find potential benefits of perspective-taking on the perceptions of outgroup members[clarification needed]. Studies on perspective-taking and bias and stereotyping are generally done by asking participants to take the perspective of another person who is different from them in certain domains (i.e. asking young adult participants to take on the perspective of an elderly person or asking White participants to take on the perspective of a Black person seen in a photograph or video).[3] Such studies show that perspective-taking can lead to reduced stereotyping of outgroup members,[50] improved attitudes towards others,[51] and increased helping behavior of outgroup members[clarification needed]. Perspective-taking can lead to reduced in-group favoritism.[50] Research on implicit (or unconscious) biases found that perspective-taking can reduce implicit bias scores (as measured by the Implicit-association test) as well as more recognition of subtle discrimination.[clarification needed][3]

In disagreements

Research into differences between having a conversation with someone whom you agree with versus with someone with whom you disagree finds that participants who disagreed had enhanced perspective-taking ability and could better remember the conversation.[52]

Drawbacks

Some researchers suggest drawbacks to perspective-taking. For example, studies found that asking people to engage in perspective-taking tasks can lead to increased stereotyping of the target if the target is deemed as having more stereotypic qualities[53] and as adopting stereotypic behaviors of outgroup members.[54]

Other animals

Studies to assess if nonhuman animals can successfully engage in perspective-taking have not drawn consistent conclusions. Many such studies assess perspective-taking by training animals on specific tasks or by measuring how consistently animals follow the eye gaze of humans. Being able to successfully follow another's eye gaze could indicate that the animal is aware that the human is seeing and paying attention to something that is different from what they see.[55]

A study of spider monkeys and capuchin monkeys found that these primates successfully performed eye gazing tasks. This led researchers to conclude that the monkeys demonstrated some ability to consider another person's viewpoint.[55] However, another study found that Rhesus monkeys were unsuccessful at such eye gazing tasks.[56]

Studies suggest that dogs have complex social understanding.[57] In one study, researchers told a dog it was not allowed to eat a treat and then placed the treat in a location that the dog could reach.[5] Dogs were more likely to eat the treat after being instructed not to if there was a barrier that hid the dog from the instructor. Dogs were less likely to eat the treat if the barrier was of smaller size or had a window in it. This study also showed that dogs struggled in other tasks that focused on the dog's own visual attention. These researchers suggest that this study provides evidence that dogs may be aware of other's visual perspectives.[5]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Why it pays to get inside the head of your opponent: the differential effects of perspective taking and empathy in negotiations". Psychological Science 19 (4): 378–84. April 2008. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02096.x. PMID 18399891. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 The child's conception of space. New York. 1967. ISBN 978-0393004083. OCLC 444733. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (6): 1027–42. June 2011. doi:10.1037/a0022308. PMID 21381852. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "The Necessity of Others is the Mother of Invention: Intrinsic and Prosocial Motivations, Perspective Taking, and Creativity". The Academy of Management Journal 54 (1): 73–96. 2011. doi:10.5465/amj.2011.59215085. https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/gf06gb62p. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Visual perspective taking in dogs (Canis familiaris) in the presence of barriers". Applied Animal Behaviour Science 88 (3–4): 299–317. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.03.004. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 "The development of knowledge about visual perception". Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 25: 43–76. 1977. PMID 753993. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "A model of communicative perspective-taking for typical and atypical populations of children". Developmental Review 31 (1): 55–78. 2011-03-01. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.001. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Empathy and social perspective taking in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37 (1): 107–18. January 2009. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9262-4. PMID 18712471. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "A comparative study of autistic subjects' performance at two levels of visual and cognitive perspective taking". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 20 (4): 555–67. December 1990. doi:10.1007/BF02216060. PMID 2279973. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Common brain areas engaged in false belief reasoning and visual perspective taking: a meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 712. 2013. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00712. PMID 24198773. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Conflicting emotions: The connection between affective perspective taking and theory of mind" (in en). British Journal of Developmental Psychology 24 (2): 401–418. 2006-06-01. doi:10.1348/026151005X50302. ISSN 2044-835X. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach." (in en). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (1): 113–126. 1983. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113. 
  13. ↑ "An exploratory investigation of the process of perspective taking in interpersonal situations". Journal of Relationships Research 4: e6, 1–12. 2013. doi:10.1017/jrr.2013.6. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 "The Early Development of Conceptual Perspective Taking: Distinguishing among Multiple Perspectives". Child Development 47 (2): 511–514. 1976. doi:10.2307/1128810. 
  15. ↑ "Theory of Mind and Neurodevelopmental Disorders of Childhood" (in En). Pediatric Research 69 (5 Part 2): 101R–108R. 2011-05-01. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c177. PMID 21289541. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "Using Video Modeling to Teach Perspective Taking to Children with Autism" (in en). Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 5 (1): 12–21. 2003. doi:10.1177/10983007030050010101. 
  17. ↑ "An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents". Child Development 53 (2): 413–425. 1982. doi:10.2307/1128984. 
  18. ↑ "Evolution of empathetic moral evaluation". eLife 8: e44269. April 2019. doi:10.7554/eLife.44269. PMID 30964002. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 "Young children's knowledge about visual perception: Effect of observer's distance from target on perceptual clarity of target." (in en). Developmental Psychology 16 (1): 10–12. 1980. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.1.10. 
  20. ↑ "Children's early ability to solve perspective-taking problems." (in en). Developmental Psychology 28 (4): 635–643. 1992. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.635. 
  21. ↑ "Level 1 perspective-taking at 24 months of age" (in en). British Journal of Developmental Psychology 24 (3): 603–613. 2006-09-01. doi:10.1348/026151005x55370. ISSN 2044-835X. 
  22. ↑ Ikeda, Ayaka; Kanakogi, Yasuhiro; Hirai, Masahiro (2022-02-16). "Visual perspective-taking ability in 7- and 12-month-old infants" (in en). PLOS ONE 17 (2): e0263653. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0263653. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 35171927. Bibcode: 2022PLoSO..1763653I. 
  23. ↑ "Now I see it but you don't: 14-month-olds can represent another person's visual perspective". Developmental Science 10 (2): 199–204. March 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00580.x. PMID 17286844. 
  24. ↑ Sodian, Beate; Thoermer, Claudia; Metz, Ulrike (2007-03-01). "Now I see it but you don't: 14-month-olds can represent another person's visual perspective" (in en). Developmental Science 10 (2): 199–204. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00580.x. PMID 17286844. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00580.x. 
  25. ↑ Ikeda, Ayaka; Kanakogi, Yasuhiro; Hirai, Masahiro (2022-02-16). "Visual perspective-taking ability in 7- and 12-month-old infants" (in en). PLOS ONE 17 (2): e0263653. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0263653. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 35171927. Bibcode: 2022PLoSO..1763653I. 
  26. ↑ "How does it look? Level 2 perspective-taking at 36 months of age". Child Development 82 (2): 661–73. 2011-03-01. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01571.x. PMID 21410927. 
  27. ↑ "Egocentrism and automatic perspective taking in children and adults". Child Development 83 (2): 452–60. 2012-03-01. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01730.x. PMID 22335247. 
  28. ↑ "Visual Perspective-Taking Skills in Children". Child Development 56 (5): 1204–1213. 1985. doi:10.2307/1130235. PMID 4053740. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge. 2001. ISBN 9780415254014. OCLC 46944889. 
  30. ↑ "Taking Another's Perspective: Role-Taking Development in Early Childhood". Child Development 42 (6): 1721–1734. 1971. doi:10.2307/1127580. 
  31. ↑ "A Structural-Developmental Analysis of Levels of Role Taking in Middle Childhood". Child Development 45 (3): 803–806. 1974. doi:10.2307/1127850. PMID 4143833. 
  32. ↑ "Conceptual perspective taking in 2- to 6-year-old children." (in en). Developmental Psychology 12 (1): 85–86. 1976. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.12.1.85. 
  33. ↑ "Are strong empathizers better mentalizers? Evidence for independence and interaction between the routes of social cognition". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 11 (9): 1383–1392. 2016. doi:10.1093/scan/nsw052. PMID 27129794. 
  34. ↑ "Empathy and visual perspective-taking performance.". Cognitive Neuroscience 7 (1–4): 170–181. 2016. doi:10.1080/17588928.2015.1085372. PMID 26745546. 
  35. ↑ "Embodied and disembodied cognition: Spatial perspective-taking.". Cognition 110 (1): 124–129. 2009. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.008. PMID 19056081. 
  36. ↑ "Seeing it their way: Evidence for rapid and involuntary computation of what other people see". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 36 (5): 1255–1266. 2010. doi:10.1037/a0018729. PMID 20731512. 
  37. ↑ "The venus effect: People's understanding of mirror reflections in paintings.". Perception 32 (5): 593–599. 2003. doi:10.1068/p3418. PMID 12854645. 
  38. ↑ "Prefrontal cortex and decision making in a mixed-strategy game" (in En). Nature Neuroscience 7 (4): 404–10. April 2004. doi:10.1038/nn1209. PMID 15004564. 
  39. ↑ "The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates". Brain 129 (Pt 3): 564–83. March 2006. doi:10.1093/brain/awl004. PMID 16399806. 
  40. ↑ "Does the cerebellum contribute to specific aspects of attention?". Neuropsychologia 41 (11): 1452–60. 2003-01-01. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00090-3. PMID 12849763. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "What you believe versus what you think they believe: a neuroimaging study of conceptual perspective-taking". The European Journal of Neuroscience 17 (11): 2475–80. June 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02673.x. PMID 12814380. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Effect of subjective perspective taking during simulation of action: a PET investigation of agency" (in En). Nature Neuroscience 4 (5): 546–50. May 2001. doi:10.1038/87510. PMID 11319565. 
  43. ↑ "Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: cognitive or affective?". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 18 (3): 379–402. September 1988. doi:10.1007/bf02212194. PMID 3049519. 
  44. ↑ "Using video modeling and reinforcement to teach perspective-taking skills to children with autism". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 36 (2): 253–7. 2003. doi:10.1901/jaba.2003.36-253. PMID 12858990. 
  45. ↑ "Differences in Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking Across 63 Countries" (in en). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 48 (1): 23–38. 2017-01-01. doi:10.1177/0022022116673910. ISSN 0022-0221. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 "Perspective Taking: Imagining How Another Feels Versus Imaging How You Would Feel" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (7): 751–758. 2016-07-02. doi:10.1177/0146167297237008. 
  47. ↑ "Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers". Developmental Psychology 45 (2): 534–43. March 2009. doi:10.1037/a0014322. PMID 19271837. 
  48. ↑ "Sibling Relations: The Role of Conceptual Perspective-Taking in the Ontogeny of Sibling Caregiving". Child Development 55 (4): 1322–1332. 1984. doi:10.2307/1130002. 
  49. ↑ "Fostering team creativity: perspective taking as key to unlocking diversity's potential". The Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (5): 982–96. September 2012. doi:10.1037/a0029159. PMID 22774764. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism." (in en). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (4): 708–724. 2000. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708. PMID 10794375. 
  51. ↑ "Perspective taking and prejudice reduction: the mediational role of empathy arousal and situational attributions" (in en). European Journal of Social Psychology 33 (4): 455–472. 2003-07-01. doi:10.1002/ejsp.163. ISSN 1099-0992. 
  52. ↑ "Effects of controversy on cognitive perspective taking." (in en). Journal of Educational Psychology 69 (6): 679–685. 1977. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.69.6.679. 
  53. ↑ "Perspective Taking Shapes the Impact of Significant-other Representations". Self and Identity 11 (2): 170–184. 2012-04-01. doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.517986. ISSN 1529-8868. 
  54. ↑ "Perspective-takers behave more stereotypically". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2): 404–19. August 2008. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.404. PMID 18665710. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) follow gaze around barriers: evidence for perspective taking?". Journal of Comparative Psychology 123 (4): 368–74. November 2009. doi:10.1037/a0017079. PMID 19929105. 
  56. ↑ "Rhesus monkeys fail to use gaze direction as an experimenter-given cue in an object-choice task". Behavioural Processes 37 (1): 47–55. August 1996. doi:10.1016/0376-6357(95)00074-7. PMID 24897158. 
  57. ↑ "Cues to food location that domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) of different ages do and do not use" (in en). Animal Cognition 3 (2): 107–112. 2000-12-01. doi:10.1007/s100710000070. ISSN 1435-9448. 



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